tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-39805155623372596152024-03-05T01:31:37.591-08:00Blog FisikaPHYSYCS FOR ALLakhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.comBlogger27125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-66448696011627390122009-12-12T12:23:00.000-08:002009-12-12T12:24:52.242-08:00sedang sibukdikarenakan banyak tugas maka blog ini ditutup sementara,,,,,,akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-30255749679464296872009-06-08T03:51:00.000-07:002009-06-08T03:58:56.774-07:00Taksiran Waktu Beberapa Percobaan dan Teori Penting yang Berhubungan dengan Teori Kuantum<span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:130%;" ><br /></span><br /><br /><br />1881 Michelson memperoleh hasil nihil untuk kecepatan mutlak bumi.<br />1884 Balmer rumus empiris untuk garis-garis hidrogen khusus.<br />1887 Hertz menghasilkan gelombang elektromagnet,yang membenarkan teori Maxwell dan secara tak sengaja menemukan efek fotolistrik.<br />1887 Michelson mengulangi percobaannya denga morley,sekali lagi memperoleh hasil nihil.<br />1895 Rontgen menemukan sinar X.<br />1896 Becquerel menemukan radioaktivitas nuklir.<br />1897 J.J Thompson mengukur e/m untuk sinar katoda, yang menunjukan bahwa elaktron merupakan bagian dasar atom.<br />1900 Planck menerangkan radiasi benda hitam dengan menggunakan energi pengkuantaan yang melibatkan konstsnta baru h.<br />1900 Lenard menyelidiki efek fotolistrik dan menemukan energi elektron tak tergantung pada intensitas cahaya.<br />1905 Einstein mengusulkan teori relativitas khusus.<br />1905 Einstein menerangkan efek fotolistrik dengan menyarankan kuantisasi radiasi.<br />1907 Einstein menggunakan kuantisasi energi untuk menerangkan ketergantungan temperatur kapasitas kalor zat padat.<br />1908 Rydberg dan Ritz memperluas rumus Balmer untuk menyesuaikan spektrum banyak unsur.<br />1909 Milikan percobaan tetesan minyak Milikan menunjukan kuantisasi muatan listrik.<br />1911 Rutherford mengusulkan model inti atom yang didasarkan pada percobaan penghamburan partikel alfa Geiger dan Marsden.<br />1912 Freidrich,Knipping,dan von Laue mempragakan difraksi sinar X oleh Kristal yang menunjukan bahwa sinar X merupakan gelombang dan kristal merupakan susunan teratur.<br />1913 Bohr mengusulkan model atom Hidrogen.<br />1914 Moseley menganalisis spektrum sinar X dengan menggunakan model atom Bohr untuk menerangkan tabel berkala yang dinyatakan dalam nomor atom.<br />1915 Duane dan Hunt menunjukan bahwa batas panjang gelombang pendek sinar X ditentukan dari teori kuantum.<br />1916 Wilson dan Sommerfeld mengusulkan kaidah untuk kuantisasi sistem berkala.<br />1916 Milikan membuktikan persamaan fotolistrik Einstein.<br />1923 Compton menerangkan penyebaran dinar X oleh elektron sebagai tumbukan foton dan elektron dan mencocokkan hasilnya secara percobaan.<br />1924 De Broglie mengusulkan gelombang elektron yang berpanjang gelombang h/p.<br />1925 Schrodinger mengembangkan matematika mekanika gelombang elektron.<br />1925 Heisenberg menciptakan mekanika matriks.<br />1925 Pauli menyatakan prinsip larangan pauli.<br />1927 Heisenberg merumuskan prinsip ketidakpastian.<br />1927 Davisson dan Germer mengamati difraksi gelombang elektron dan kristral tunggal.<br />1927 G.P.Thompson mengamati difraksi gelombang elektron dalam lembaran tipis logam.<br />1928 Gamow,Condon,dan Gurney menggunakan mekanika kuantum untuk menjelaskan umur peluruhan alfa.<br />1928 Dirac mengembangkan mekanika kuantum relativistik dan memperkirakan keberadaan positron.<br />1932 Chadwick menemukan neutron.<br />1932 Anderson menemukan positron.akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-9923983570373914562009-04-25T16:17:00.000-07:002009-04-25T17:48:45.835-07:00Fluks Listrik<span style="font-size:100%;">Fluks Listrik didefinisikan sebagai perkalian medan listrik (E) dengan luasan yang dilaluinya(A) :
<br />
<br /></span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">Φ = E A
<br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">
<br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">dengan:</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">
<br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">Φ = fluks listrik (</span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><span style="font-size:100%;">N m<sup>2</sup>/C)</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">E = medan listrik</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">A = luasan (</span><span style="font-size:100%;">m<sup>2</sup></span><span style="font-size:100%;"> )</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">karena medan listrik ini berbanding lurus dengan jumlah garis gaya per luas satuan, maka fluks ini akan berbanding lurus dengan jumlah garis gaya medan yang melewati luasan tersebut.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">maka :</span></p><span style="font-size:100%;">
<br /></span><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">Φ = E .n A = E A cos </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman";">θ = </span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]-->E<sub>n </sub>A </p><p class="MsoNormal">
<br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">dengan:</p><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><p class="MsoNormal"><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]-->
<br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">E<sub>n </sub>= E . n adalah komponen dari vektor medan listrik yang tidak tegak lurus, atau normal terhadap permukaan tersebut.</p><p class="MsoNormal">
<br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">kita dapat menggeneralisasi definisi fluks ini terhadap permukaan lengkung yang medan listriknya dapat memiliki besar serta arah yang berubah-ubah dengan membagi permukaan tersebut menjadi sejumlah besar elemen yang sangat kecil. Jika ukurannya cukup kecil, maka masing-masing elemen tersebut dapat dianggap sebagai bidang, variasi nilai medan listrik antara elemen-elemen tersebut dapat diabaikan.</p><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;">Misal ń<sub>i </sub>adalah vektor satuan yang tegak lurus terhadap elemen ke- i dan ∆Ai adalah luasnya. Fluks untuk medan listrik yang melewati elemen ini adalah:</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;">∆Φ<sub>i </sub>= E . ń<sub>i </sub>ΔA<sub>i</sub></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;">fluks total yang melewati permukaan ini adalah jumlah dari <meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]-->∆Φ<sub>i </sub>terhadap senua elemen tersebut. Dalam bentuk limitnya begitu jumlah eemen ini mendekati tak hingga dan luas setiap elemennya mendekati nol, maka jumlah ini akan menjadi sebuah integral.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;">Definisi umum fluks listrik ini dengan demikian akan menjadi:</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><sub>Φ </sub>= lim ∑ E .ńΔA<sub>i</sub> = ⌡ E . ń <i style="">d</i>A</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt;"><span style=""> </span><sub>ΔAi→0</sub></p>
<br /><sub><o:p></o:p></sub><p></p> <p></p><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><sub><o:p></o:p></sub> <p class="MsoNormal">
<br /><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Sectio</style><span style="font-size:100%;"></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><sup></sup></span></p><p></p><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --</style><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-14934381286860527582009-04-21T13:49:00.000-07:002009-04-24T03:18:11.196-07:00Arus Searah ( DC )<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnzfuapgSYfcZqxpBUMFsGDBUIynGmHBzc3gUyg60m1c7iz_0ZPV4_3ECDoV5_p5K4t1xqIt1XJQr7w53HWhlgN7TtH2KQej5oNlCUcxUM5Y-2_JKt62MhGQgJaOlHQ8GokY9ydLhMzOM/s1600-h/gambar-arus-dc.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 133px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnzfuapgSYfcZqxpBUMFsGDBUIynGmHBzc3gUyg60m1c7iz_0ZPV4_3ECDoV5_p5K4t1xqIt1XJQr7w53HWhlgN7TtH2KQej5oNlCUcxUM5Y-2_JKt62MhGQgJaOlHQ8GokY9ydLhMzOM/s320/gambar-arus-dc.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5327258020031500322" border="0" /></a><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeRcIypksYGNv6xPhFnbl91nKoiW5dF8XSiVnzFMS63F79lLFRa9qrEgZGt7-NJVhld3mvwRuyCVDQxcAdmp8s1PNuJUxgSceWAX_90kV1zVWyvP4sh34UG6-kLCAIqmcmQwZJCABA7tc/s1600-h/dcmotor.gif"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 234px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeRcIypksYGNv6xPhFnbl91nKoiW5dF8XSiVnzFMS63F79lLFRa9qrEgZGt7-NJVhld3mvwRuyCVDQxcAdmp8s1PNuJUxgSceWAX_90kV1zVWyvP4sh34UG6-kLCAIqmcmQwZJCABA7tc/s320/dcmotor.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5328199356451083410" border="0" /></a><br />Baterai yang kita gunakan untuk saat ini / sumber tegangan menghasilkan tegangan langsung , yang berarti bahwa hanya mengalir dalam satu arah merupakan salah satu sumder tegangan dc.<br />misalkan kita membahas baterai yang dihubungkan bola lampu, jumlah elektron yang mengalir ditentukan oleh jenis dan ukuran baterai serta ukuran dan jenis bola lampu. Kita dapat membalik polaritas pada baterai dengan beralih kontak (kabel), dan pada saat ini akan mengalir ke arah dan bohlam masih terang.<br />Selama baterai terhubung ke sirkuit, saat ini hanya dapat mengalir dalam satu arah. Langsung sekarang (DC) juga dapat dihasilkan dengan cara lain selain baterai. Solar sel, sel bahan bakar, dan bahkan beberapa jenis DC generator dapat memberikan itu sekarang.<br />Arus searah biasanya mengalir pada sebuah konduktor, walaupun mungkin saja arus searah mengalir pada semi-konduktor, isolator, dan ruang hampa udara<br /><br />Arus searah dulu dianggap sebagai arus positif yang mengalir dari ujung positif sumber arus listrik ke ujung negatifnya. Pengamatan-pengamatan yang lebih baru menemukan bahwa sebenarnya arus searah merupakan arus negatif (elektron) yang mengalir dari kutub negatif ke kutub positif. Aliran elektron ini menyebabkan terjadinya lubang-lubang bermuatan positif, yang "tampak" mengalir dari kutub positif ke kutub negatif.akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-18003134418756455052009-04-21T13:39:00.000-07:002009-04-21T14:27:04.921-07:00Arus Bolak Balik ( AC )<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSu8QtAyO-7JKQk_lU2HJK9TUB0qlgse10LccboV3v2ajK9LwMAItBGCagWzcWIcGjsvzT3Rl9CrH4Io0LDhfvTBj09mXqA_R_aJAagv-pc3xpgleCJPkxHxThf31U0rxkKIfobhifBVY/s1600-h/sine.gif"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 173px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSu8QtAyO-7JKQk_lU2HJK9TUB0qlgse10LccboV3v2ajK9LwMAItBGCagWzcWIcGjsvzT3Rl9CrH4Io0LDhfvTBj09mXqA_R_aJAagv-pc3xpgleCJPkxHxThf31U0rxkKIfobhifBVY/s320/sine.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5327248565487525650" border="0" /></a><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbK2KLOBRbuUXaZUvVuLIjoUsrpnod-9ouf4k52fh4Eobpx77k2zNDf0QfCYzr40OrTJsV7Qp62z3kz7nTJs9iY0-M_-KhkiqA2pLG-C4PGsnbGBfOHN8PfQpfUzjdHw5iAnPip5cLHeY/s1600-h/image.jpeg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer; width: 263px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbK2KLOBRbuUXaZUvVuLIjoUsrpnod-9ouf4k52fh4Eobpx77k2zNDf0QfCYzr40OrTJsV7Qp62z3kz7nTJs9iY0-M_-KhkiqA2pLG-C4PGsnbGBfOHN8PfQpfUzjdHw5iAnPip5cLHeY/s320/image.jpeg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5327248564885090866" border="0" /></a><br />AC adalah singkatan dari alternating current. Ini berarti bahwa arah sekarang mengalir di sirkuit yang terus bolak-balik dikembalikan. Hal ini dilakukan dengan semua jenis AC current / sumber tegangan.<br />Listrik di rumah Anda saat ini adalah alternating current. Ini berasal dari pembangkit tenaga listrik yang dioperasikan oleh perusahaan listrik.akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-82698108493546975082009-04-21T13:14:00.000-07:002009-04-21T13:29:39.009-07:00Hukum Lenz<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeJyLISjQynRiS4cfJWLODNErR491XZNv1201vP2xoLWwqcqM-E5p8URcczZMsp7QeO05pIpuUfoTiuYB5PpYUIeFAt34ZpITMZjt8OBtQpdpVMngtJr8WzHogGMfwKTuwuyGsJmv2RQo/s1600-h/images.jpeg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 88px; height: 120px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeJyLISjQynRiS4cfJWLODNErR491XZNv1201vP2xoLWwqcqM-E5p8URcczZMsp7QeO05pIpuUfoTiuYB5PpYUIeFAt34ZpITMZjt8OBtQpdpVMngtJr8WzHogGMfwKTuwuyGsJmv2RQo/s320/images.jpeg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5327244487825909170" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="" onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"></span><span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><b></b></span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span></span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"><br /><br /><br /></span> Heinrich Emil Lenz menaruh pasti dipaksa ke arah arus ketika lapangan telah berubah (ketat ketika "flux" berubah).</span> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span> Faraday tidak melakukannya - tulisannya yang agak bingung tentang masalah.</span> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">(Yah tidak bisa sempurna setiap saat - ingat - meter di modern belum ada)</span><p> </p><p> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span>Dalam modernish persyaratan:</span> </p><p> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span><span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);font-size:78%;" >"The induced seperti sekarang ini adalah untuk menentang CHANGE yang diterapkan di lapangan."</span></span> </p><p> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span>Hal ini cukup ditunjukkan dalam animasi.</span> </p><p><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://active.macromedia.com/flash2/cabs/swflash.cab#version=2,0,0,0" width="550" height="280"><param name="movie" value="lenz.swf"><embed src="http://www.launc.tased.edu.au/ONLINE/SCIENCES/physics/lenz.swf" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/shockwave/download/" width="550" height="280"></embed></object></p><ul><li> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span>Sebagai magnet pendekatan lingkaran, B bidang yang diterapkan di pusat meningkat. Ini adalah sebuah perubahan.</span> </li></ul><ul><li><span style="" onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span>Bidang yang dipaksa dibuat yang mencoba untuk meniadakan diterapkan lapangan - yakni untuk tetap total di lapangan nol - nilai aslinya.</span> </li></ul><ul><li><span style="" onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span>Induced bidang ini harus terkait dengan saat ini - yang dipaksa CURRENT lingkaran dalam arah yang ditentukan oleh versi pertama dari RH rules - satu untuk predicting B dan sekarang - BUKAN satu kekuatan.</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span> Tentu saja, induced EMF arah yang jelas prediksi oleh pemikiran konvensional arus mengalir dari positif ke negatif.</span> </li></ul><p><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span>Lenz Hukum adalah semua tentang konservasi energi.</span> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span> Menjamin bahwa ia dipaksa arus mendapatkan energi dari efek membuat perubahan.</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;"></span> Yang berlaku terhadap konduktor yang sedang dipindahkan sebelumnya sebenarnya sebuah seruan dari Lenz Hukum.</span><span style="" onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">(Sebagai konduktor bergerak turun, maka aliran meningkat, sehingga dipaksa menentang bidang ini yang mengarah ke arah yang dipaksa saat ini - yang pada gilirannya menunjukkan arah memaksa ulang pada saat ini.)</span> </p>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-24563457008249660952009-04-16T06:15:00.000-07:002009-04-16T06:29:11.054-07:00Aliran Viskous dan non Viskous<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="GramE"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Aliran viscous adalah aliran dengan kekentalan, atau sering disebut aliran fluida pekat.</span></span><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"> <span class="GramE">Kepekatan fluida ini tergantung pada gesekan antara beberapa partikel penyusun fluida.</span> <span class="GramE">Di samping itu juga gesekan antara fluida itu sendiri dengan tempat terjadinya aliran tersebuut.</span> <span class="GramE">Untuk aliran air lebih didekatkan pada aliran dengan kekentalan yang rendah, sehingga aliran air dapat berapda pada aliran non viscous.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Selanjutnya aliran termampatkan adalag aliran yang terjadi pada fluida yang selama pengalirannya dapat dimampatkan atau berubah volumenya, sehingga <span class="GramE">akan</span> mengubah pula <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">massa</st1:city></st1:place> jenis fluida tersbeut. Aliran termampatkan ini pada umumnya berlangsung pada gas, sedangkan pada air alirannya lebih didekatkan pada pengertian aliran tak termampatkan yakni bahwa selama pengaliran air tersebut <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on"><span class="GramE">massa</span></st1:city></st1:place> jenis air dianggap tetap besarnya.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Dari uraian yang telah dikemukakan di bagian depan, maka agar aliran air dapat dipahami dengan mudah maka aliran yang dimaksud dalam pembahasan nanti labih ditekankan pada aliran-aliran yang meliputi:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Aliran air merupakan aliran yang mantap<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Aliran air merupakan aliran yang tidak berputar (<i style="">irrotational</i> = tidak berotasi)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Aliran air merupakan aliran yang tidak termampatkan, yakni bahwa selama pengaliran berlangsung <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">massa</st1:place></st1:city> jenisnya tetap<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Aliran air merupakan merupakan aliran tanpa kekentalan (kekentalannya rendah)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>Melalui pengertiannya seperti yang telah dikemukakan di atas selanjutnya <span class="GramE">akan</span> dikenal aliran stasioner, yakni bahwa aliran air tersebut akan membentuk gas alir yang tertentu dan partikel penyusun air akan melalui jalur tertentu yang pernah dilalui oleh pertikel penyusun air di depannya.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="75" preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"><v:stroke joinstyle="miter"><v:formulas><v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"><v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"><v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"><v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"><v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"><v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"><v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"><v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"><v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"><v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"><v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"><v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"></v:formulas><v:path extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" connecttype="rect"><o:lock ext="edit" aspectratio="t"></v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:217.5pt;"><v:imagedata src="fluida%20dinamika_files/image001.jpg" title="gambar 1"></v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="http://smkmuhi.110mb.com/fluida%20dinamika_files/image002.jpg" shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="290" height="88" /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span class="GramE"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Gambar 1.</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"> Aliran stasioner<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>Pada aliran stasioner tersebut garis alirnya digambarkan dalam titik P, Q, dan R. Hal ini berarti air akan lewat pada titik-titik P, selanjutnya Q dan R. Pada aliran ini di setiap titik dalam pipa tersebut (titik P, atau titik Q atau titik R) tidak bekerja gaya, dan beda tekanan pada masing-masing titik dapat ditiadakan. Oleh sebab itu kecepatan aliran air di titik tertentu adalah <span class="GramE">sama</span>. <span class="GramE">Namun demikian kecepatan aliran pada titik P, titik Q, dan titik R dapat saja berbeda besarnya.</span> Gambar berikut adalah gambar yang memperlihatkan arus <span class="GramE">yang <i style="">streamline</i></span> dan turbulen.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:173.25pt;height:148.5pt'"><v:imagedata src="fluida%20dinamika_files/image003.jpg" title="gambar 2"></v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="http://smkmuhi.110mb.com/fluida%20dinamika_files/image004.jpg" shapes="_x0000_i1026" width="231" height="198" /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span class="GramE"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Gambar 2.</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"> Arus turbulen dan <i style="">streamline</i><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span><span class="GramE">Garis-garis yang digambarkan dalam tabung 3 ini disebut sebagai garis alir atau garis alur.</span> Kecepatan titik A, B, dan C <span class="GramE">akan</span> berbeda-beda.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span><span class="GramE">Bilangan Reynold merupakan besaran fisis yang tidak berdimensi.</span> Bilangan ini dipergunakan sebagai acuan dalam membedakan aliran laminier dan turbulen di satu pihak, dan di lain pihak dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai acuan untuk mengetahui jenis-jenis aliran yang berlangsung dalam air. Hal ini didasarkan pada suatu keadaan bahwa dalam satu tabung/pipa atau dalam satu tempat mengalirnya air, sering terjadi perubahan bentuk aliran yang satu menjadi aliran yang lain. Perubahan bentuk aliran ini pada umumnya tidaklah terjadi secara tiba-tiba tetapi memerlukan waktu antara, yakni suatu waktu yang relatif pendek dengan diketahuinya kecepatan <span class="GramE">kristis</span> dari suatu aliran. Kecepatan kritis ini pada umumnya <span class="GramE">akan</span> dipengaruhi oleh ukuran pipa, jenis zat cair yang lewat dalam pipa tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span><span class="GramE">Berdasarkan eksperimen yang telah dilakukan terdapat empat besaran yang menentukan apakah aliran tersebut digolongkan aliran laminier ataukah aliran turbulen.</span> Keempat besaran tersebut adalah besaran <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on"><span class="GramE">massa</span></st1:city></st1:place> jenis air, kecepatan aliran, kekentalan, dan diameter pipa. Kombinasi dari keempatnya <span class="GramE">akan</span> menentukan besarnya bilangan Reynold. <span class="GramE">Oleh sebab itu, bilangan Reynold dapat dituliskan dalam keempat besaran tersebut sebagai berikut.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">R<sub>e</sub> = (<i style="">ρ</i> v D)/η <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Keterangan:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">R<sub>e</sub><span style=""> </span>: bilangan Reynold<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span class="GramE"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">ρ</span></i></span><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">massa</st1:city></st1:place> jenis<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span class="GramE"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">η</span></span><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>: viscositas/kekentalan<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span class="GramE"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">v</span></span><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>: kecepatan aliran<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">D<span style=""> </span>: diameter pipa<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Hasil perhitungan berdasarkan eksperimen didapatkan ketentuan bahwa untuk bilangan Reynold berikut ini:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">0 <>e</sub> ≤ 2000, aliran disebut laminier<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">2000 <>e</sub> ≤ 3000, aliran disebut transisi antara laminier dan aliran turbulen<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">R<sub>e </sub>> 3000, aliran turbulen<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span><span class="GramE">Dalam pembahasan aliran air, baik aliran air yang lewat sungai maupun melalui pipa oleh PAM, istilah debit air banyak dikenal.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:222pt;height:74.25pt'"><v:imagedata src="fluida%20dinamika_files/image005.jpg" title="gambar 3"></v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="http://smkmuhi.110mb.com/fluida%20dinamika_files/image006.jpg" shapes="_x0000_i1027" width="296" height="99" /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span class="GramE"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Gambar 3.</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"> <span class="GramE">Aliran air lewat pipa.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>Debit merupakan ukuran banyaknya volume air yang dapat lewat dalam suatu tempat atau yang dapat ditampung dalam suatu tempat tiap satu satuan waktu tertentu. Satuan debit pada umumnya mengacu pada satuan volume dan satuan waktu. Apabila Q menyatakan debit air dan v menyatakan volume air, sedangkan ∆t adalah selang waktu tertentu mengalirnya air tersebut, maka hubungan antara ketiganya dapat dinyatakan sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Q = V/∆t<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">V<span style=""> </span>: volume satuannya m<sup>3</sup> (MKS) atau cm<sup>3</sup> (cgs)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">∆t<span style=""> </span>: selang waktu tertentu satuannya second<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Satuan Q adalah m<sup>3</sup>/sec (MKS) dan cm<sup>3 </sup>(cgs)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:90.75pt;height:108pt'"><v:imagedata src="fluida%20dinamika_files/image007.jpg" title="gambar 4"></v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="http://smkmuhi.110mb.com/fluida%20dinamika_files/image008.jpg" shapes="_x0000_i1028" width="121" height="144" /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span class="GramE"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Gambar 4.</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"> Bak penampung air<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>Seperti telah diungkapkan di bagian depan bahwa aliran air pada umumnya berkaitan dengan kecepatan pengalirannya, dan <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on"><span class="GramE">massa</span></st1:city></st1:place> jenis air itu sendiri. <span class="GramE">Aliran air dikatakan memiliki sifat ideal apabila air tersebut tidak dapat dimampatkan dan berpindah tanpa mengalami gesekan.</span> <span class="GramE">Hal ini berarti bahwa pada gerakan air tersebut memiliki kecepatan yang tetap pada masing-masing titik dalam pipa dan geraknya beraturan akibat pengaruh gravitasi bumi di suatu tempat terhadap partikel penyusun air tersebut.</span> Namun demikian sifat seperti yang telah diungkapkan di bagian depan tersebut dalam kehidupan sehari-hari sering sulit dijumpai dalam kenyataan, sehingga besarnya debit air yang mengalir pada sembarang aliran tersebut juga tidak mudah. Oleh sebab itu dalam pembahasan kita nanti ukuran debit didasarkan pada aliran ideal seperti yang telah diungkapkan di bagian depan.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span class="GramE"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Gambar 5.</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"> Gerak zat cair dalam tabung dari posisi (a) dan (b)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Lihat gambar di atas, suatu pipa terbuka yang luas penampang ujung kiri adalah A<sub>1</sub> dan mengalir air dengan kecepatan V<sub>1</sub>, selanjutnya air mengalir melalui pipa kanan yang memiliki luas penampang A<sub>2</sub> dengan kecepatan pengaliran adalah V<sub>2</sub>, maka berdasarkan sifat yang telah dikemukakan di depan akan berlaku hukum kekekalan <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">massa</st1:place></st1:city>, yakni bahwa selama pengaliran tidak ada fluida yang hilang, maka selama t detik akan berlaku persamaan:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">A<sub>1</sub> V<sub>1</sub> g t = A<sub>2</sub> V<sub>2</sub> g t<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">A<sub>1</sub> V<sub>1</sub><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>= A<sub>2</sub> V<sub>2</sub> = konstan<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Persamaan tersebut merupakan persamaan kontinuitas, dan sebagai konsekuensi aliran semacam ini adalah bahwa lecepatan pengaliran air <span class="GramE">akan</span> terbesar pada suatu tempat yang memiliki luas penampang terkecil.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Di sini volume air yang mengalir V = A v t<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Jadi selama t detik besarnya debit air yang dapat keluar adalah <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Q = (A v t)/t<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Q = A v<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>Seperti telah diungkapkan di bagian depan bahwa aliran air dalam suatu tabung <span class="GramE">akan</span> bergantung pada tingginya permukaan air di dalam tabung tersebut dan luas penampang lubang yang terdapat dalam tabung. Hal ini berarti bahwa debit air yang mengalir dalam tabung <span class="GramE">akan</span> bergantung pada ketinggian permukaan air dalam tabung dan luas penampangnya. Gambar di bawah ini memperlihatkan bahwa tabung dengan ketinggian permukaan air yang <span class="GramE">sama</span> tingginya tetapi luas lubang pengaliran berbeda. Selanjutnya air dibiarkan mengalir dalam waktu yang <span class="GramE">sama</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:170.25pt;height:102.75pt'"><v:imagedata src="fluida%20dinamika_files/image009.jpg" title="gambar 6"></v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="http://smkmuhi.110mb.com/fluida%20dinamika_files/image010.jpg" shapes="_x0000_i1029" width="227" height="137" /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span class="GramE"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Gambar 6.</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"> <span class="GramE">Peluapan air melalui lubang yang memiliki diameter berbeda.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>Dari gambar di atas nampak jelas bahwa banyaknya air yang meluah melalui lubang tabung yang memiliki luas penampang yang lebih besar <span class="GramE">akan</span> lebih banyak dibandingkan dengan tabung yang memiliki luas penampang yang lebih kecil. <span class="GramE">Hal ini disebabkan luas penampang lubang pengaliran air berbeda, yakni lubang yang satu lebih besar dari yang lainnya.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>Selanjutnya perhatikan gambar berikut ini, di bawah ini terdapat dua tabung <span class="GramE">sama</span> besar, diberikan dua lubang yang sama besarnya dan lubang tersebut berada pada ketinggian yang sama. <span class="GramE">Seterusnya pada tabung diisi dengan air yang berbeda tingginya dan dibiarkan air mengalir melalui lubang tersebut.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1030" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:230.25pt;height:114.75pt'"><v:imagedata src="fluida%20dinamika_files/image011.jpg" title="gambar 7"></v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="http://smkmuhi.110mb.com/fluida%20dinamika_files/image012.jpg" shapes="_x0000_i1030" width="307" height="153" /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span class="GramE"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;">Gambar 7.</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"> Peluapan air melalui lubang <span class="GramE">sama</span> tetapi ketinggian air berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></p><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span>Dari aliran air dalam selang waktu yang bersamaan <span class="GramE">akan</span> dapat diketahui bahwa air dalam lubang tabung yang memiliki permukaan yang lebih tinggi akan memberikan gambaran debit air yang lebih besar daripada tabung yang memiliki ketinggian permukaan yang lebih rendah. Hal ini disebabkan pada permukaan air yang lebih tinggi <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on"><span class="GramE">gaya</span></st1:city></st1:place> berat yang diberikan air semakin besar, sehingga memiliki kecenderungan tekanan yang lebih besar daripada tabung yang memiliki ketinggian permukaan air yang lebih rendah. Akibatnya aliran air <span class="GramE">akan</span> lebih cepat dari yang lainnya. Dengan demikian <span class="GramE">akan</span> memiliki debit yang lebih besar dari lainnya, semakin tinggi permukaan air dalam tabung akan semakin besar kecepatan air yang keluar dari tabung.</span>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-76741317591769700702009-04-14T10:57:00.000-07:002009-04-14T11:01:30.587-07:00soal fisika SMASoal 1:<br /><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"> <tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left">Dari rangkaian listrik di bawah ini, kuat arus yang melewati R1 adalah ...</td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_pertanyaan/200702140202376920.jpg" align="left" border="0" /></td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">A.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>4,00 ampere</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">B.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>3,00 ampere</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">C.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>2,40 ampere</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">D.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>1,60 ampere</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">E.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>0,75 ampere</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td>Kunci:</td><td>D<br /></td></tr> </tbody></table> <hr /> Soal 2:<br /><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"> <tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left">Perhatikan tabel: Q menyatakan muatan listrik, r adalah jarak, maka perbandingan jarak Coloumb yang terjadi antara 1 dan 2 adalah ...</td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_pertanyaan/200702140202475418.jpg" align="left" border="0" /></td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">A.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>1 : 4</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">B.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>1 : 2</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">C.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>3 : 4</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">D.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>2 : 3</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">E.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>4 : 1</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td>Kunci:</td><td>D<br /></td></tr> </tbody></table> <hr /> Soal 3:<br /><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"> <tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left">Sinar laser terdiri dari...</td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">A.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>elektron- elektron dengan kecepatan besar</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">B.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>proton- proton dengan kecepatan besar</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">C.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>neutron- neutron dengan kecepatan besar</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">D.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>partikel dengan kecepatan besar</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">E.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>gelombang elektromagnetik</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td>Kunci:</td><td>E<br /></td></tr> </tbody></table> <hr /> Soal 4:<br /><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"> <tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left"><br /></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_pertanyaan/200702131002223629.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">A.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>1,75 m</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">B.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>1,50 m</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">C.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>1,25 m</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">D.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>0,50 m</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">E.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>0,25 m</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td>Kunci:</td><td>E<br /></td></tr> </tbody></table> <hr /> Soal 5:<br /><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"> <tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left">Dua buah benda hitam sempurna A dan B dalam keadaan pijar, warna cahaya A lebih putih daripada cahaya B yang kemerah- merahan.<br />Grafik pada gambar ini adalah spektrum radiasi tiap- tiap benda terhadap frekuensi. Maka dapat diambil kesimpulan...<br /></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_pertanyaan/200702100202457328.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">A.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>TA > TB dan grafik I = A, grafik II = B</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">B.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>TA > TB dan grafik I = B, grafik II = A</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">C.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>TA < i =" A," ii =" B</td"><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">D.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>TA < i =" B," ii =" A</td"><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">E.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>TA = TB dan grafik I = A, II = B</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td>Kunci:</td><td>B<br /></td></tr> </tbody></table> <hr /> Soal 6:<br /><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"> <tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left">Laser adalah berkas cahaya memiliki sifat antara lain :</td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">A.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>tidak koheren, monokromatis dan sejajar</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">B.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>monokromtis, koheren dan sejajar</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">C.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>tidak koheren, polikromatis dan sejajar</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">D.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>koheren, polikromatis dan sejajar</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">E.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>monokromatis, koheren dan tidak sejajar</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td>Kunci:</td><td>A<br /></td></tr> </tbody></table> <hr /> Soal 7:<br /><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"> <tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left">Jika besar vektor Ä = 10 satuan, membuat sudut 60° dengan sumbu x positif, maka besar vektor tersebut dalam sumbu x dan sumbu y adalah...</td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">A.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_opsi/200702120802468217a.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">B.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_opsi/200702120802462617b.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">C.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_opsi/200702120802461217c.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">D.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_opsi/20070212080246717d.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">E.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_opsi/20070212080246317e.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td>Kunci:</td><td>E<br /></td></tr> </tbody></table> <hr /> Soal 8:<br /><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"> <tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left"><br /></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_pertanyaan/200702141002136840.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">A.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_opsi/200702121202371940A.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">B.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_opsi/200702121202375040B.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">C.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_opsi/200702121202377840C.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">D.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_opsi/200702121202377640D.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">E.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/uji/gbr_opsi/200702121202373340E.gif" align="left" border="0" /></td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td>Kunci:</td><td>D<br /></td></tr> </tbody></table> <hr /> Soal 9:<br /><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"> <tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left">Gelombang elektromagnet yang dijatuhkan pada katode alat fotolistrik, mempunyai...</td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">A.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>panjang gelombang <><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">B.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>panjang gelombang = panjang gelombang batas</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">C.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>panjang gelombang > panjang gelombang batas</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">D.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>panjang gelombang ≤ panjang gelombang batas</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">E.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>panjang gelombang ≥ panjang gelombang batas</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td>Kunci:</td><td>D<br /></td></tr> </tbody></table> <hr /> Soal 10:<br /> <table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="500" align="left">Seberkas cahaya putih berturut-turut melewati dua filter yaitu kuning dan hijau kemudian jatuhkan pada layar putih. Tentu cahaya yang tampak pada layar adalah …</td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">A.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>ungu </td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">B.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>biru</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">C.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>kuning</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">D.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>merah</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"><td width="40" align="right">E.</td><td width="460"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td>hijau</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td>Kunci:</td><td>E<br /></td></tr></tbody></table>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-16248905051742658502009-04-14T10:28:00.000-07:002009-04-14T10:31:14.370-07:00Medan Magnet pada Solenoida<span style="font-family:Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;font-size:100%;"><span style="font-family:Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">SOLENOIDA adalah kumparan kawat berbentuk tabung panjang dengan lilitan yang sangat rapat</span></span><p class="style9">Sebuah kawat dibentuk seperti spiral yang selanjutnya disebut kumparan , apabila dialiri arus listrik maka akan berfungsi seperti magnet batang.</p><p class="style9"><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" width="320" height="190"> <param name="movie" value="mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_16.swf"><param name="quality" value="high"><embed src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_16.swf" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="320" height="190"></embed> </object></p><p class="style9">Kumparan ini disebut dengan Solenida</p><p class="style9">Besarnya medan magnet disumbu pusat (titik O) Solenoida dapat dihitung</p><p><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_15.gif" width="124" height="58" /></p><p class="style9"><em>Bo = medan magnet pada pusat solenoida dalam tesla ( T )<br />μ0 = permeabilitas ruang hampa = 4п . 10 <sup>-7</sup> Wb/amp. M<br />I = kuat arus listrik dalam ampere ( A )<br />N = jumlah lilitan dalam solenoida<br />L = panjang solenoida dalam meter ( m ) </em></p><p class="style9">Dengan arah medan magnet ditentukan dengan kaidah tangan kanan. Arah arus menentukan arah medan magnet pada Solenoida.</p><p class="style9"> </p><p class="style9"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/h_17.jpg" width="313" height="212" /></p><p class="style9">Besarnya medan magnet di ujung Solenida (titik P) dapat dihitung:</p><p class="style9"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_16.gif" width="146" height="59" /></p><p class="style13">BP = Medan magnet diujung Solenoida dalam tesla ( T )<br />N = jumlah lilitan pada Solenoida dalam lilitan<br />I = kuat arus listrik dalam ampere ( A )<br />L = Panjang Solenoida dalam meter ( m )<br /></p><p class="style9">Contoh :<br />Sebuah Solenoida panjang 2 m memiliki 800 lilitan. Bila Solenoida dialiri arus sebesar 0,5 A, tentukan induksi magnet pada :<br />a. Pusat solenoida<br />b. Ujung solenoida</p><p class="style9">Jawab :<br />Diketahui : I = 0,5 A<br />L = 2 meter<br />N = 800 lilitan<br />Ditanya : a. Bo = ............ ?<br />b. BP = .......... ?<br />Dijawab : </p><p class="style9"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_17.gif" width="470" height="105" /></p><p class="style9"> </p>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-82969137353815496582009-04-14T10:23:00.000-07:002009-04-14T10:25:10.248-07:00Medan Magnet di Sekitar Kawat Melingkar Berarus<p class="style9">Besar dan arah medan magnet disumbu kawat melingkar berarus listrik dapat ditentukan dengan rumus :</p><p class="style9"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/h_15.jpg" width="188" align="left" height="236" /></p><p class="style9"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_4.gif" width="479" height="66" /></p><p class="style9"> </p><p class="style9"> </p><p class="style9"> </p><p class="style13">Keterangan:</p><ul><li class="style13">BP = Induksi magnet di P pada sumbu kawat melingkar dalam <strong>tesla </strong> ( T)</li><li class="style13">I = kuat arus pada kawat dalam <strong>ampere</strong> ( A ) </li><li class="style13">a = jari-jari kawat melingkar dalam <strong>meter</strong> ( m )</li><li class="style13">r = jarak P ke lingkaran kawat dalam <strong>meter</strong> ( m ) </li><li class="style13">θ = sudut antara sumbu kawat dan garis hubung P ke titik pada lingkaran kawat dalam <strong> derajad </strong>(°)</li><li class="style13">x = jarak titik P ke pusat lingkaran dalam mater ( m ) </li></ul><p> <span class="style9"> dimana </span> <img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_5.gif" width="111" align="top" height="35" /></p><p class="style9"> </p><p class="style9"><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" width="220" height="170"> <param name="movie" value="mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_13.swf"><param name="quality" value="high"><embed src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_13.swf" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="220" height="170"></embed> </object></p><p class="style9">Besarnya medan magnet di pusat kawat melingkar dapat dihitung</p><p class="style9"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_3.gif" width="394" height="72" /></p><ul><li class="style9"><em>B = Medan magnet dalam<strong> tesla ( T ) </strong></em></li><li class="style9"><em>μo = permeabilitas ruang hampa = 4п . 10 -7 <strong>Wb/amp. m</strong></em></li><li class="style9"><em>I = Kuat arus listrik dalam <strong>ampere</strong> ( A )</em></li><li class="style9"><em>a = jarak titik P dari kawat dalam <strong>meter </strong>(m)<br /> = jari-jari lingkaran yang dibuat</em></li></ul><p class="style9">Arah ditentukan dengan kaidah tangan kanan<br />Perhatikan gambar</p><span class="style9">Sebuah kawat melingkar berada pada sebuah bidang mendatar dengan dialiri arus listrik </span><p class="style9">Apabila kawat melingkar tersebut dialiri arus listrik dengan arah tertentu maka disumbu pusat lingkaran akan muncul medan magnet dengan arah tertentu. Arah medan magnet ini ditentukan dengan kaidah tangan kanan.<br />Dengan aturan sebagai berikut:<br />Apabila tangan kanan kita menggenggam maka arah ibu jari menunjukkan arah medan magnet sedangkan keempat jari yang lain menunjukkan arah arus listrik</p><p class="style9">Keterangan gambar :</p><p><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" width="180" height="240"> <param name="movie" value="mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_03-14.swf"><param name="quality" value="high"><embed src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_03-14.swf" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="180" height="240"></embed> </object></p><p><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_11.gif" width="189" height="75" /></p><p class="style9"> </p><p class="style9"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/h_15.jpg" width="188" align="left" height="236" />Sebuah kawat melingkar dialiri arus listrik sebesar 4 A (lihat gambar). Jika jari-jari lingkaran 8 cm dan arak titik P terhadap sumbu kawat melingkar adalah 6 cm maka tentukan medan magnet pada :<br /> a. pusat kawat melingkar ( O )<br /> b. dititik P<br /></p><p class="style9"> </p><p class="style9"> </p><p class="style9"> </p><p class="style9">Jawab :<br />Diketahui : I = 4 A <br /> a = 8 cm = 8 . 10 – 2 m <br /> x = 6 cm = 6 . 10 – 2 m<br /> <img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_13.gif" width="154" height="19" /><br /> sin θ = a / r = 8 / 10 = 0,8<br />Ditanya : a. Bo = ……. ?<br /> b. BP = ……. ?<br />Dijawab :</p><p class="style9"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_14a.gif" width="405" height="52" /></p><p class="style9"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_14b.gif" width="441" height="53" /></p> <img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_14c.gif" width="259" height="25" /><br />sumber : http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_full.php?id=269&fname=materi03.htmlakhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-87547536367869027382009-04-14T09:57:00.000-07:002009-04-14T10:13:11.822-07:00Medan Magnet di Sekitar Kawat LurusMedan Magnet adalah suatu medan yang dibentuk dengan menggerakan muatan listrik yang menyebabkan munculnya gaya di muatan listrik yang bergerak lainnya. <p class="style9"><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" width="260" align="right" height="260"> <param name="movie" value="mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_07.swf"><param name="quality" value="high"><embed src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_07.swf" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="260" align="right" height="260"></embed> </object> Besarnya medan Magnet disekitar kawat lurus panjang berarus listrik. Dipengaruhi oleh besarnya kuat arus listrik dan jarak titik tinjauan terhadap kawat. Semakin besar kuat arus semakin besar kuat medan magnetnya, semakin jauh jaraknya terhadap kawat semakin kecil kuat medan magnetnya.</p><p class="style9">Berdasarkan perumusan matematik oleh Biot-Savart maka besarnya kuat medan magnet disekitar kawat berarus listrik dirumuskan dengan :</p><p><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_2.gif" width="425" height="62" /></p><ul class="style9"><li><em>B = Medan magnet dalam tesla ( T ) </em></li><li><em>μo = permeabilitas ruang hampa = <img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sim6b.gif" width="151" align="absmiddle" height="17" /></em></li><li><em>I = Kuat arus listrik dalam ampere ( A )</em></li><li><em>a = jarak titik P dari kawat dalam meter (m) </em></li></ul><p class="style9">Arah medan magnet menggunakan <span style="text-decoration: underline;">aturan tangan kanan</span><a href="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_full.php?id=269&fname=www."></a></p><p class="style9"><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" width="260" align="right" height="140"> <param name="movie" value="mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_08.swf"><param name="quality" value="high"><embed src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_08.swf" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="260" align="right" height="140"></embed> </object> Medan magnet adalah besaran vector, sehingga apabila suatu titik dipengaruhi oleh beberapa medan magnet maka di dalam perhitungannya menggunakan operasi vektor.<br />Berikut ditampilkan beberapa gambar yang menunnjukkan arah arus dan arah medan magnet.<br />Arah medan magnet didaerah titik P ( diatas kawat berarus listrik ) menembus bidang menjauhi pengamat sedang didaerah titik Q dibawah kawat berarus listrik menembus bidang mendekati pengamat.<br />Tanda titik <img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sim1.gif" width="29" align="absmiddle" height="30" /> menunjukkan arah medan menembus bidang mendekati pengamat.<br />Tanda silang <img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sim2.gif" width="29" align="absmiddle" height="30" /> menunjukkan arah medan menembus bidang menjauhi pengamat.<br />Tanda anak panah biru menunjukkan arah arus listrik.</p><p class="style9"><object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=7,0,19,0" width="220" align="right" height="200"> <param name="movie" value="mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_09.swf"><param name="quality" value="high"><embed src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/anim/h_09.swf" quality="high" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="220" align="right" height="200"></embed> </object> Pada sumbu koordinat <strong>x</strong>, <strong>y</strong>, <strong>z</strong> kawat berarus listrik berada pada bidang xoz dan bersilangan dengan sb. Z negative. Arah arus listrik searah dengan sumbu x positif.<br />Jarak antara kawat I dengan titik pusat koordinat (O) adalah <strong>a</strong> maka besarnya medan magnet dititik (O) tersebut searah dengan sumbu y negative.<br /><br /></p><p class="style9"> </p><p class="style9">Keterangan gambar:<br /><em>I = arus listrik<br />B = medan magnet<br />Tanda panah biru menunjukkan arah arus llistrik </em></p><p class="style9">Contoh :</p><p class="style9">Sebuah kawat lurus panjang dialiri arus 5 miliampere berada diruang hampa . Tentukan besarnya induksi magnetic pada titik yang berada sejauh 10 cm disebelah kanan kawat, bila kawat vertikal ?</p><p class="style9">Jawab :<br />Diketahui : I = 5 miliampere = 5 . 10 <sup>– 3</sup> Ampere<br />a = 10 cm = 0,1 meter<br />Ditanya : B = ………….?<br />Dijawab :</p><p><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_9.gif" width="173" height="120" /></p><p> </p><p class="style9">Sebuah kawat berada pada sumbu x dialiri arus listrik sebesar 2 A searah dengan sumbu x positif . Tentukan besar dan arah medan magnet dititik P yang berada pada sumbu y berjarak 4 cm dari pusat koordinat 0 ( lihat gambar) ?</p><p class="style9"><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/h_11.jpg" width="289" height="193" /></p><p class="style9">Dijawab :<br />Dketahui : I = 2 A<br />a = 4 . 10 – 2 m<br />Ditanya : Besar dan arah B ….. ?<br />Dijawab :</p><p><img src="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_files/mp_269/images/sym_10.gif" width="292" height="127" /></p><p>sumber : http://www.e-dukasi.net/mapok/mp_full.php?id=269&fname=materi02.html <br /></p><p> </p>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-56465924772416083732009-04-13T11:51:00.000-07:002009-04-13T12:33:11.379-07:00Galvanometer<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhk8JyrAWXHpxXSi-cB4TLL6cJ1M2aEjRvhNjaC4MY9_bdpl5WdKQUS9PkZkcxKRIFmz5Ib_DFSUEoIE13cm06W4pETYaEpXXWzoVSpeEGcm6nJ2AOBsq82CJ40kJoBjgbGdVShQ9MvxrI/s1600-h/Inspector_Oersted.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 233px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhk8JyrAWXHpxXSi-cB4TLL6cJ1M2aEjRvhNjaC4MY9_bdpl5WdKQUS9PkZkcxKRIFmz5Ib_DFSUEoIE13cm06W4pETYaEpXXWzoVSpeEGcm6nJ2AOBsq82CJ40kJoBjgbGdVShQ9MvxrI/s320/Inspector_Oersted.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5324260959928605314" border="0" /></a><span style="" onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="hw">galvanometer</span> adalah alat yang digunakan untuk menentukan keberadaan, arah, dan kekuatan dari sebuah arus listrik dalam sebuah konduktor</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;">.</span> Semua galvanometers didasarkan atas penemuan oleh Hans C. </span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;">Oersted </span></span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">bahwa jarum magnetis adalah yg </span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">dibelokkan oleh keberadaan sebuah arus listrik di dekat konduktor</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;">.</span> Ketika sebuah arus listrik yang lewat melalui konduktor, maka jarum magnetis cenderung berbelok ke kanan di sudut </span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">ke konduktor sehingga dengan arah yang paralel dengan baris induksi sekitar konduktor dan utara tiang poin dalam arah yang ini </span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">baris induksi mengalir</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;">.</span> Secara umum, sejauh mana jarum yang ternyata adalah bergantung pada kekuatan yang sekarang</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;">.</span> Dalam galvanometers pertama, yang berputar </span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">bebas jarum magnetis adalah hung dalam lilitan dari kawat, dalam versi yang lebih baru telah </span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">magnet tetap </span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">dan dibuat berliku-liku yg </span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">dpt </span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">bergerak.</span> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"></span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">Galvanometers m</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">odern ini a</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">dalah yg dpt be</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">rgerak berlingkar-jenis dan dipanggil d'Arsonval galvanometers </span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">(setelah Arsène d'Arsonval, Prancis fisika).</span><span style="" onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"> </span><span style="" onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">Jika pointer terpasang ke gulungan berg</span><span style="" onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">erak sehing</span><span style="" onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">ga lolos melalui calibrated sesuai skala, galvanometer yang dapat </span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQLGdA8XgHnR-QXN411OVQchQWeiCZo1KSE7jsdlBSGNatfUBvXn7lleTlYg8Tl8ccRRvR50LeGB8JpruvtN4kavsLKTlAu-VsRIut1SdhE3qklkZIaSQNSZWk1RPJXSFH872PAbUfOK4/s1600-h/Galvanometer_scheme.png"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 258px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQLGdA8XgHnR-QXN411OVQchQWeiCZo1KSE7jsdlBSGNatfUBvXn7lleTlYg8Tl8ccRRvR50LeGB8JpruvtN4kavsLKTlAu-VsRIut1SdhE3qklkZIaSQNSZWk1RPJXSFH872PAbUfOK4/s320/Galvanometer_scheme.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5324260747507915938" border="0" /></a><span style="" onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">digunakan untuk mengukur banyaknya yang sedang melewati itu.</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"> Calibrated galvanometers seperti yang banyak digunakan dalam mengukur perangkat listrik.</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"> DC <span style="text-decoration: underline;">pengukur ampere,</span> sebuah alat untuk mengukur arus searah, sering terdiri dari calibrated melalui galvanometer yang saat ini akan diukur dibuat untuk lulus.</span> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()">Sejak arus berat akan merusak galvanometer, yang memotong, atau tabrakan, disediakan sehingga hanya diketahui persentase tertentu yang sedang melewati melalui galvanometer.</span> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"> Dengan mengukur persentase diketahui pada saat ini, satu tiba di total sekarang</span><span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"><span class="google-src-text" style="direction: ltr; text-align: left;">.</span> DC tegangan volt, yang dapat menghitung tegangan langsung, terdiri dari calibrated galvanometer terhubung dalam rangkaian (lihat <span style="text-decoration: underline;">sirkuit listrik )</span> dengan daya tahan tinggi.</span> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"> Untuk mengukur tegangan antara dua titik, satu tegangan volt yang menghubungkan antara keduanya.</span> <span onmouseover="_tipon(this)" onmouseout="_tipoff()"> Yang sedang melalui galvanometer (dan membaca maka pointer) lalu proporsional dengan tegangan. <a href="http://72.14.203.132/translate_c?hl=id&sl=en&u=http://www.answers.com/topic/ohm-s-law&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dgalvanometer%26hl%3Did%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN&usg=ALkJrhjTvupG_FcqMIKhgL9tftnamfcXNw" class="ilnk" target="_top" onclick="assignParam('navinfo','method|4'+getLinkTextForCookie(this));"><br /></a></span>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-76520202695394156782009-04-04T20:53:00.000-07:002009-04-04T23:03:37.176-07:00Terbentuknya Jagad Raya<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgH-i1HQb-FCBBwKIdtNTg7_I2HxGx5pFhyphenhyphen8bi28vq0VkNVXzOmWjlSmd4qLFyWNSwRgf4PeASTBEBYyGCPbBDgdAEtDkuiexJ8MRbvRPMci9uTdNQlaQ07npYLxF9Y5n1Pkxul_Hw1rZE/s1600-h/bigbang2.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 297px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgH-i1HQb-FCBBwKIdtNTg7_I2HxGx5pFhyphenhyphen8bi28vq0VkNVXzOmWjlSmd4qLFyWNSwRgf4PeASTBEBYyGCPbBDgdAEtDkuiexJ8MRbvRPMci9uTdNQlaQ07npYLxF9Y5n1Pkxul_Hw1rZE/s320/bigbang2.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5321083620594806898" border="0" /></a>Kadang aku berfikir sebenarnya jagad raya itu terbentuk dari apa dan apa,selama ini pelajaran yang saya dapat merupakan teori yang belum tentu kebenarannya.banyak teori yang menjelaskan tentang terjadinya jagad raya salah satunya yang terkenal adalah teori big bang,Teori ini menyatakan bahwa alam semesta ini terbentuk dari ledakan mahadahsyat yang terjadi sekitar 13.700 juta tahun lalu. Ledakan ini melontarkan materi dalam jumlah sangat besar ke segala penjuru alam semesta. Materi-materi ini kemudian yang kemudian mengisi alam semesta ini dalam bentuk bintang, planet, debu kosmis, asteroid/meteor, energi, dan partikel lainnya dialam semesta ini.Para ilmuwan juga percaya bawa Big Bang membentuk sistem tata surya. Ide sentral dari teori ini adalah bahwa teori relativitas umum dapat dikombinasikan dengan hasil pemantauan dalam skala besar pada pergerakan galaksi terhadap satu sama lain, dan meramalkan bahwa suatu saat alam semesta akan kembali atau terus. Konsekuensi alami dari Teori Big Bang yaitu pada masa lampau alam semesta punya suhu yang jauh lebih tinggi dan kerapatan yang jauh lebih tinggi.<br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />Tapi menurut saya,hanya dalam al-quran dan hadits semua itu dijelaskan, seperti beberapa ayat di bawah ini:<br />>>>Quran surat Al-Anbiya (surat ke-21) ayat 30 disebutkan: </div> <p>“Dan apakah orang-orang kafir tidak mengetahui bahwasanya langit dan bumi itu keduanya dahulu adalah suatu yang padu, kemudian Kami pisahkan antara keduanya. Dan dari air Kami jadikan segala sesuatu yang hidup. Maka mengapakah mereka tiada juga beriman?”</p>>>>Quran surat Fussilat (surat ke-41) ayat 11 Allah berfirman: <div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">“Kemudian Dia menuju langit dan langit itu masih merupakan asap, lalu Dia berkata kepadanya dan kepada bumi: “Datanglah kamu keduanya menurut perintah-Ku dengan suka hati atau terpaksa”. Keduanya menjawab: “Kami datang dengan suka hati”.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">>>>Quran surat At-Talaq (surat ke-65) ayat 12 Allah berfirman: </p><div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">“Allah-lah yang menciptakan tujuh langit dan seperti itu pula bumi. Perintah Allah berlaku padanya, agar kamu mengetahui bahwasanya Allah Maha Kuasa atas segala sesuatu, dan sesungguhnya Allah ilmunya benar-benar meliputi segala sesuatu”</p><p style="text-align: justify;">>>>Quran surat Qaf (surat ke-50) ayat 58 yang artinya: </p><div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">“Dan sesungguhnya telah Kami ciptakan langit dan bumi dan apa yang ada antara keduanya dalam enam masa, dan Kami sedikit pun tidak ditimpa keletihan”</p><p><br /></p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-32251224387301744952009-04-04T12:08:00.000-07:002009-04-04T12:49:17.458-07:00Mesin atwood(atwood machine)<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRqkl0LKXFntp-eCfwO-oPbSBxf0ijJE6J1pTlGYtiHtPZQCd4bHsMgrUPqnzrf2XBcIJ51RxIm06ZpTyGxhBQ_ATOqm1Xi9LQ2WuZOIcL72AOAjVlPvjc29HYcJ0AkPCNF6fY72p8c4A/s1600-h/atwood1.png"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 150px; height: 263px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRqkl0LKXFntp-eCfwO-oPbSBxf0ijJE6J1pTlGYtiHtPZQCd4bHsMgrUPqnzrf2XBcIJ51RxIm06ZpTyGxhBQ_ATOqm1Xi9LQ2WuZOIcL72AOAjVlPvjc29HYcJ0AkPCNF6fY72p8c4A/s320/atwood1.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5320925386883873746" border="0" /></a><br /><br />The Atwood machine (or Atwood's machine) was invented in 1784 by Rev George Atwood as a laboratory experiment to verify the mechanical laws of uniformly accelerated motion. Atwood's machine is a common classroom demonstration used to illustrate principles of physics, specifically mechanics.<br />The ideal Atwood Machine consists of two objects of mass m1 and m2, connected by an inelastic massless string over an ideal massless pulley. When m1 = m2, the machine is in neutral equilibrium regardless of the position of the weights.<br />When m1 ≠ m2 both masses experience uniform acceleration.<br />(image: wikipedia)akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-80666158983090397112009-04-04T11:07:00.000-07:002009-04-04T11:26:10.977-07:00bilangan alami (euler)<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7jRnEE9rR-2unoViDl5o0JSAyx2vzcor-qzlXwZb2BB0ZQoFGiteXHvTqwYfEfqb2uRFUV0kSTciwGL5iVKyJkIsROVNr4UdCE9ZUyN_PEEpQRE5Oqz_fkVH3mt8c7Q1b1M39v8E9IFE/s1600-h/E-ruud.png"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 180px; height: 180px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7jRnEE9rR-2unoViDl5o0JSAyx2vzcor-qzlXwZb2BB0ZQoFGiteXHvTqwYfEfqb2uRFUV0kSTciwGL5iVKyJkIsROVNr4UdCE9ZUyN_PEEpQRE5Oqz_fkVH3mt8c7Q1b1M39v8E9IFE/s320/E-ruud.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5320903162753524962" border="0" /></a>
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<br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">e</span></i><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> adalah bilangan dimana gradien (kemiringan) dari fungsi </span><i style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">f(x)=e</i><sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><i>x</i></sup> pada setiap titiknya sama dengan nilai (tinggi) fungsi tersebut pada titik yang sama.
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<br /><a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konstanta_matematika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Konstanta matematika (halaman belum tersedia)">Konstanta matematika</a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </span><i style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><b>e</b></i><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> adalah basis dari </span><a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logaritma_natural" title="Logaritma natural">logaritma natural</a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">. Kadang-kadang disebut juga </span><b style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">bilangan Euler</b><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> sebagai penghargaan atas ahli matematika </span><a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss" title="Swiss">Swiss</a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, </span><a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, atau juga </span><b style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">konstanta Napier</b><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> sebagai penghargaan atas ahli matematika </span><a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skotlandia" title="Skotlandia">Skotlandia</a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, </span><a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> yang merumuskan konsep </span><a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logaritma" title="Logaritma">logaritma</a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> untuk pertama kali. Bilangan ini adalah salah satu bilangan yang terpenting dalam matematika, sama pentingnya dengan 0, 1, </span><i style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">i</i><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, dan </span><a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">π</a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">. Bilangan ini memiliki beberapa definisi yang ekivalen; sebagain ada dibawah.</span><div style="text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div><p style="text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span style="font-size:130%;">Nilai bilangan ini, dipotong pada posisi ke-30 setelah tanda desimal (tanpa dibulatkan), adalah:</span></p><div style="text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div><dl style="text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><dd><span style="font-size:130%;"><i>e</i> ≈ 2,71828 18284 59045 23536 02874 71352</span></dd></dl>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-90237876317112919202009-04-04T08:24:00.000-07:002009-04-04T08:39:25.687-07:00Suseptibilitas Magnetik (Kerentanan Magnetik)<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGQBYtaqyDY5Z_QCf2dMggbFHYMl9QKVIYy6ncXRKWQp_7E5GDBoH22YIU1lF8rlBatSjnE9sfJ2jyoRJFN99sp4taII9HFjF5uX1zV-oV3pp0NcjiOG6w5XmxpX18SEo5o7sU2c4YsBc/s1600-h/Fig113.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 250px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGQBYtaqyDY5Z_QCf2dMggbFHYMl9QKVIYy6ncXRKWQp_7E5GDBoH22YIU1lF8rlBatSjnE9sfJ2jyoRJFN99sp4taII9HFjF5uX1zV-oV3pp0NcjiOG6w5XmxpX18SEo5o7sU2c4YsBc/s320/Fig113.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5320861228814980946" border="0" /></a><br /><div id="result_box" dir="ltr">Kerentanan magnetik adalah pengukuran yang tidak merusak dan biaya efektif metode penentuan keberadaan besi tanah mineral di sedimen. Seluruh inti, individu atau endapan contoh, dihadapkan ke eksternal magnetic field yang menyebabkan sedimen menjadi magnetized menurut jumlah Fe tanah mineral hadir dalam sampel.<br />Kerentanan magnetik adalah ukuran kemudahan yang tertentu sedimen yang magnetized bila terkena magnetis ke lapangan. Kemudahan proses mengisikan maknit yang akhirnya berkaitan dengan konsentrasi dan komposisi (ukuran, bentuk dan mineralogi) dari bahan magnetizable didalam sampel. Setiap inti memiliki endapan downcore variasi per unit volume pada konsentrasi dan komposisi mineral magnetizable akan menghasilkan sebuah MS kurfa mencerminkan perubahan tersebut.<br />Dalam sistem, seluruh core akan dipindahkan secara bertahap (biasanya dalam 1cm) oleh trek motor melalui kelemahan loop (dari berbagai ukuran) di bidang magnetis yang dihasilkan dan yang rentan magnetizes sampel bahan (mineral atau mineraloids) dalam sedimen. Contoh yang kaya, per unit volume, di magnetizable zat tinggi akan menghasilkan pembacaan. Contoh yang miskin di magnetizable zat, atau berisi diamagnetic mineral, akan menghasilkan nilai-nilai negatif atau lebih rendah<br />Magnetizable mineral termasuk mineral ferromagnetic (sangat magnetizable) dan salah satu paramagnetic (cukupan magnetizable) mineral dan zat lainnya. Mantan termasuk magnetite, bijih besi, besi titanium oxides, pyrrhotite, maghemite, greigite dan goethite, mineral mampu memperoleh sisa proses mengisikan maknit dan berguna bagi studi paleomagnetic. Yang terakhir meliputi berbagai array dari semua benda yang mengandung Fe2 +, Fe3 +, atau Mn2 + ions. Ini mungkin termasuk paramagnetic mineral tanah mineral (chlorite, smectite dan glauconite), dan besi manggan carbonates (siderite, rhodochrosite), ferromagnesian silicates (olivine, amphiboles, pyroxenes, dll), serta berbagai ferric-oxyhydroxide mineraloids.</div>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-22760205922485847342009-04-04T08:01:00.000-07:002009-04-04T08:13:10.911-07:00Lubang putih (White Hole)<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfp_sspHrOi_IJlKnYknbuhX9EJur55skVQWf0FxmC6iElkGl-wcp4X_kD7PTba4p-QbkHosbPjkCmg2ZxTLwsdqMo5fNowF4yTMv6C3ppI6KHKEh8a05AB01ml6QecnWwIelEq8nxXsk/s1600-h/mir.gif"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 288px; height: 288px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfp_sspHrOi_IJlKnYknbuhX9EJur55skVQWf0FxmC6iElkGl-wcp4X_kD7PTba4p-QbkHosbPjkCmg2ZxTLwsdqMo5fNowF4yTMv6C3ppI6KHKEh8a05AB01ml6QecnWwIelEq8nxXsk/s320/mir.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5320853600918867538" border="0" /></a>
<br /><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="City"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="City"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><span style=""></span>Lubang rutih adalah lubang yang berlawanan dari lubang hitam, lebih tepatnya, sebuah lubang hitam yang berjalan mundur dalam waktu. Konsep lubang putih datang karena Schwarzschild geometri yang memungkinkan lubang hitam negatif square root serta positif square root solusi. Negatif square root solusi berkaitan dengan suatu lubang putih. Lengkapnya, maka geometri terdiri dari lubang hitam, lubang putih, dan dua universes terhubung pada mereka horizons oleh lubang cacing. Seperti sebuah lubang hitam irretrievably swallows segala sesuatu yang jatuh ke dalamnya, lubang putih spits hanya masalah energi dan keluar. Namun, karena lubang putih tampak melanggar hukum termodinamika kedua tampaknya tidak mungkin bahwa mereka ada di alam. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Ada</st1:place></st1:city> beberapa spekulasi bahwa awal quasars mungkin lubang putih, namun ini telah diskontinou. akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-15287880108601523262009-04-03T11:48:00.000-07:002009-04-03T12:28:18.558-07:00Electrocoating(pelapisan dengan arus listrik)<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJktoXZyJ-dXVJh2eZ13viIDN9kvW8GXm4MLLWhmYwrX75ZtEKYeLxdFODgZIV6u0t-T2ne4hRVhc6ectrfQp6JDSehsZ-uXHQpXwEyRhyQ69CuhXHN8VL5Pcg-bS_o9JNWn8lHkXDn8I/s1600-h/pfdmerlo01c.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 250px; height: 211px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJktoXZyJ-dXVJh2eZ13viIDN9kvW8GXm4MLLWhmYwrX75ZtEKYeLxdFODgZIV6u0t-T2ne4hRVhc6ectrfQp6JDSehsZ-uXHQpXwEyRhyQ69CuhXHN8VL5Pcg-bS_o9JNWn8lHkXDn8I/s320/pfdmerlo01c.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5320548265730571906" border="0" /></a><br /><h3><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">The Basics of Electrocoating</span></h3><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">Electrocoating is a process critical to every segment of metalworking industries. Advanced electrocoating systems allow product designers greater latitude in the choice of materials, improve the performance and wear properties of critical c</span><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">omponents, and give metals a high quality, nonporous, high-adhering surface for the subsequent application of liquid or powder topcoats, </span> <span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">where desirable.</span><p><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><br /><br /></span></p> <h4><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">A Definition:</span></h4><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">Electrocoating uses electrical energy to apply organic finishes. The part is grounded and immersed in paint that has been charged with the opposite polarity. Resin and pigment migrate to the part, and a uniform film is irreversibly deposited. The part is rinsed, then cured.</span><p><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><br /><br /></span></p><h4><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">4 Critical Processes:</span></h4><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><b>Successful film depo</b></span><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><b>sition depends on four simultaneous processes:</b></span><ul><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><li>Electr<span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"> </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"> </span></span></span></span></span>o<span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"> </span></span></span>ph<span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"> </span></span>oresis - the mo<span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"> </span>vement of colloidal materials dispersed in liquid under the influence of a potential gradient. </li><li>Electrolysis - the dissociation and movement of ions. </li><li>Electro-osmosis - (the reverse of electrophoresis) the extraction of water from the deposited film. </li><li>Polarization - the ability of the deposited film to exhibit electricity resistance, thereby insuring even coverage.</li></span></ul><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><br /><br /></span><h4><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"> <h3><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgL_Ru67Ez50CDRInZ0OxrlhiTlDwGkTHaPqdsc_2g8q91NoCLWXdjZhQr4i5LLofbj7wsd7SOZaCJZ2wAdcM8Nggu89YyCJVdOCTCxDjJb2wZ4mwWZAwiscUBwzjEaWq3UUHPnnLQ0EtQ/s1600-h/electro-coating.gif"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 211px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgL_Ru67Ez50CDRInZ0OxrlhiTlDwGkTHaPqdsc_2g8q91NoCLWXdjZhQr4i5LLofbj7wsd7SOZaCJZ2wAdcM8Nggu89YyCJVdOCTCxDjJb2wZ4mwWZAwiscUBwzjEaWq3UUHPnnLQ0EtQ/s320/electro-coating.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5320548707993113122" border="0" /></a></h3> </span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">E-Coat Advantages:</span></h4><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">Properly engineered systems offer precise control over film thickness, highest film integrity and an unblemished appearance. The process offers extremely high repeatability of results, and is a practical alternative for metal parts of virtually all sizes and shapes, gauges and grades.</span><p><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">The most common applications of electrocoating include underhood/underbody components, recreational goods, cooking and laundry appliances, HVAC products, and aerospace products. Recently, manufacturers of upscale consumer products have popularized electrocoating as a primer for powder-coated goods.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><br /><br /></span></p><h4><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">E-Coat and the Environment:</span></h4><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">Electrocoating benefits the user in several important ways. Closed loop rinsing, ultrafiltration, and the applications process itself allow material utilization of virtually 100%. Many electrocoat paint formulas are now available which are free of heavy metals; many are also near-zero in VOCs and HAPs.</span><p><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">Electrocoating may not require a dry-off oven, thus exhaust air and makeup needs are minimized. Finally, because the paint is 80-90% water, the risk of fire - the “ultimate” environmental disaster - is vastly reduced.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;"><br /><br /></span></p><h4><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">The Anodic/Cathodic Debate:</span></h4><span style="font-family:arial,helvetica;font-size:85%;">Anodic systems deposit a negatively charged polymer onto a positively charged part; in a cathodic system, the reverse is true. KOCH can demonstrate, and help you compare these options in terms relevant to your plant, your product, your production, and your future requirements. Today, acrylic, epoxy and hybrid electrocoating are the alternatives. Of these, cathodic epoxy systems are widely regarded as the “ultimate” in terms of delivering high hardness, excellent salt spray and other performance properties.</span>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-23018162373304789842009-04-03T10:07:00.000-07:002009-04-03T11:26:35.194-07:00Hamburan(efek) Compton
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<br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEeANE5ARHkRiaFNOwvqIxOA7z2SSR91mxEW9nbhXYYmvE6298Wvn6LnzP67qqNuny2-b_VRCC9Z34lJiF0_m3Y39FZPQrg5MFLyyA-tzGEZyJyggSJcTv_1nHkpqVpu2IS7fPX__nsRk/s1600-h/compton.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 162px; height: 227px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEeANE5ARHkRiaFNOwvqIxOA7z2SSR91mxEW9nbhXYYmvE6298Wvn6LnzP67qqNuny2-b_VRCC9Z34lJiF0_m3Y39FZPQrg5MFLyyA-tzGEZyJyggSJcTv_1nHkpqVpu2IS7fPX__nsRk/s320/compton.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5320526754422129426" border="0" /></a><span style="font-weight: bold;">Biography</span>
<br /><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceName"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceType"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="State"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="City"></o:smarttagtype><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} p.smalltext, li.smalltext, div.smalltext {mso-style-name:smalltext; mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Arthur Holly Compton</span> was born at <st1:city st="on">Wooster</st1:city>, <st1:state st="on">Ohio</st1:state>, on September 10th, 1892, the son of Elias Compton, Professor of Philosophy and Dean of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">College</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Wooster</st1:placename></st1:place>. He was educated at the College, graduating Bachelor of Science in 1913, and he spent three years in postgraduate study at <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Princeton</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> receiving his M.A. degree in 1914 and his Ph.D. in 1916. After spending a year as instructor of physics at the <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Minnesota</st1:placename>, he took a position as a research engineer with the Westinghouse Lamp Company at <st1:city st="on">Pittsburgh</st1:city> until 1919 when he studied at <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Cambridge</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> as a National Research Council Fellow. In 1920, he was appointed Wayman Crow Professor of Physics, and Head of the Department of Physics at the <st1:placename st="on">Washington</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype>, <st1:city st="on">St. Louis</st1:city>; and in 1923 he moved to the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Chicago</st1:placename></st1:place> as Professor of Physics. <st1:city st="on">Compton</st1:city> returned to <st1:city st="on">St. Louis</st1:city> as Chancellor in 1945 and from 1954 until his retirement in 1961 he was Distinguished Service Professor of Natural Philosophy at the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Was</st1:placename></st1:place><st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">hington</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place>.
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<br />In his early days at Princeton, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Compton</st1:place></st1:city> devised an elegant method for demonstrating the Earth's rotation, but he was soon to begin his studies in the field of X-rays. He developed a theory of the intensity of X-ray reflection from crystals as a means of studying the arrangement of electrons and atoms, and in 1918 he started a study of X-ray scattering. This led, in 1922, to his discovery of the increase of wavelength of X-rays due to scattering of the incident radiation by free electrons, which implies that the scattered quanta have less energy than the quanta of the original beam. This effect, nowadays known as the <span style="">Compton effect</span>, which clearly illustrates the particle concept of electromagnetic radiation, was afterwards substantiated by C. T. R. Wilson who, in his cloud chamber, could show the presence of the tracks of the recoil electrons. Another proof of the reality of this phenomenon was supplied by the coincidence method (developed by Compton and A.W. Simon, and independently in Germany by W. Bothe and H. Geiger), by which it could be established that individual scattered X-ray photons and recoil electrons appear at the same instant, contradicting the views then being developed by some investigators in an attempt to reconcile quantum views with the continuous waves of electromagnetic theory. For this discovery, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Compton</st1:place></st1:city> was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1927 (sharing this with C. T. R. Wilson who received the Prize for his discovery of the cloud chamber method).
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<br />In addition, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Compton</st1:place></st1:city> discovered (with C. F. Hagenow) the phenomenon of total reflection of X-rays and their complete polarization, which led to a more accurate determination of the number of electrons in an atom. He was also the first (with R. L. Doan) who obtained X-ray spectra from ruled gratings, which offers a direct method of measuring the wavelength of X-rays. By comparing these spectra with those obtained when using a crystal, the absolute value of the grating space of the crystal can be determined. The Avogadro number found by combining above value with the measured crystal density, led to a new value for the electronic charge. This outcome necessitated the revision of the <a href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1923/index.html"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Millikan</span></a> oil-drop value from 4.774 to 4.803 X 10<sup>-10</sup> e.s.u. (revealing that systematic errors had been made in the measurement of the viscosity of air, a quantity entering into the oil-drop method).
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<br />During 1930-1940, <st1:city st="on">Compton</st1:city> led a world-wide study of the geographic variations of the intensity of cosmic rays, thereby fully confirming the observations made in 1927 by J. Clay from <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Amsterdam</st1:place></st1:city> of the influence of latitude on cosmic ray intensity. He could, however, show that the intensity was correlated with geomagnetic rather than geographic latitude. This gave rise to extensive studies of the interaction of the Earth's magnetic field with the incoming isotropic stream of primary charged particles.
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<br />Compton has numerous papers on scientific record and he is the author of <span style="">Secondary Radiations Produced by X-rays</span> (1922), <span style="">X-Rays and Electrons</span> (1926, second edition 1928), <span style="">X-Rays in Theory and Experiment</span> (with S. K. Allison, 1935, this being the revised edition of <span style="">X-rays and Electrons</span>), <span style="">The Freedom of Man</span> (1935, third edition 1939), <span style="">On Going to College</span> (with others, 1940), and <span style="">Human Meaning of Science</span> (1940).
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<br />Dr. Compton was awarded numerous honorary degrees and other distinctions including the Rumford Gold Medal (<st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">American</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Academy</st1:placetype></st1:place> of Arts and Sciences), 1927; Gold Medal of Radiological Society of North America, 1928; Hughes Medal (Royal Society) and Franklin Medal (Franklin Institute), 1940.
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<br />He served as President of the American Physical Society (1934), of the American Association of Scientific Workers (1939-1940), and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1942).
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<br />In 1941 <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Compton</st1:place></st1:city> was appointed Chairman of the National Academy of Sciences Committee to Evaluate Use of Atomic Energy in War. His investigations, carried out in cooperation with <a href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1938/index.html"><span style="text-decoration: none;">E. Fermi</span></a>, L. Szilard, <a href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1963/index.html"><span style="text-decoration: none;">E. P. Wigner</span></a> and others, led to the establishment of the first controlled uranium fission reactors, and, ultimately, to the large plutonium-producing reactors in <st1:city st="on">Hanford</st1:city>, <st1:state st="on">Washington</st1:state>, which produced the plutonium for the <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Nagasaki</st1:place></st1:city> bomb, in August 1945. (He also played a role in the Government's decision to use the bomb; a personal account of these matters may be found in his book, <span style="">Atomic Quest - a Personal Narrative</span>, 1956.)
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<br />In 1916, he married Betty Charity McCloskey. The eldest of their two sons, Arthur Allen, is in the American Foreign Service and the youngest, John Joseph, is Professor of Philosophy at the <st1:placename st="on">Vanderbilt</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> (<st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Nashville</st1:city>, <st1:state st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place> ). His brother Wilson is a former President of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Washington</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">State</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place>, and his brother Karl Taylor was formerly President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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<br /><st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Compton</st1:place></st1:city>'s chief recreations were tennis, astronomy, photography and music.
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<br />He died on March 15th, 1962, in <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Berkeley</st1:city>, <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state></st1:place>. <!--eri-no-index--><o:p></o:p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="smalltext">From <span style=""><a href="http://nobelprize.org/nobelfoundation/publications/lectures/index.html"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Nobel Lectures</span></a>, Physics 1922-1941</span>, Elsevier Publishing Company, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Amsterdam</st1:place></st1:city>, 1965</p><p style="text-align: justify;" class="smalltext"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Hamburan Compton</span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7gd91n7A4zqlA0RVyTHRTR3eW8ggbq-P81feYEETjJ3VaYUQHv6vgiKZfhz_5WxO8ziF29canYCF8SuLGkciJFOT4ka76mE1UrsIucl5pdA2cS741PXeyyKxTIk4QyDuj3xqJ8LJdMUc/s1600-h/1197-6.JPG"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 257px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7gd91n7A4zqlA0RVyTHRTR3eW8ggbq-P81feYEETjJ3VaYUQHv6vgiKZfhz_5WxO8ziF29canYCF8SuLGkciJFOT4ka76mE1UrsIucl5pdA2cS741PXeyyKxTIk4QyDuj3xqJ8LJdMUc/s320/1197-6.JPG" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5320532459002800386" border="0" /></a></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </div><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>Hamburan Compton adalah suatu efek yang merupakan bagian interaksi sebuah penyinaran terhadap suatu materi. Efek Compton adalah salah satu dari 3 proses yang melemahkan energi suatu sinar ionisasi. Bila suatu sinar jatuh pada permukaan suatu materi sebagian daripada energinya akan diberikan kepada materi tersebut, sedangkan sinar itu sendiri akan di sebarkan. Sebagai contoh : Element dalam sistem periodik dengan nomer atom yang besar seperti timbal akan meyerap energi sinar ionisasi <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efek_fotoelektrik" title="Efek fotoelektrik"><span style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">efek fotoelektrik</span></a>, sedangkan element yang bernomer atom kecil akan menyebarkan sinar ionisasi tersebut. Penyebaran sinar Rontgen pada dasarnya lebih kuat dari sinar <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahaya" title="Cahaya"><span style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">cahaya</span></a> yang dapat dilihat <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polychromatik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Polychromatik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">polychromatik</span></a>. Bahkan sinar rontgen normal pada perjalanannya di udara mengalami penyebaran, ini juga yang menjadi sumber bahaya yang serius didalam penggunaan sinar rontgen di kedokteran tanpa pakaian khusus. Pada penyebaran secara normal energi sinar rontgen tidak berubah, yang berubah adalah arah begeraknya.<o:p></o:p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<br />akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-56438918319245135612009-04-02T14:08:00.000-07:002009-04-02T15:49:38.432-07:00Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffraction(Difraksi Fanhoufer)<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGo2AChY7RLnObjj3qaFNxU6KRvOfELKgrq5ra8HBEcj8EN3pORAZFeVKq91Rvd40e-E9prHytYJLe2VI4d3CtmOFjlWho6oxPT1VRUMUKdt10OF8uuVi_nXkQ37MYKgRHkKKZQFKIu6w/s1600-h/Fraunhofer.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 280px; height: 280px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGo2AChY7RLnObjj3qaFNxU6KRvOfELKgrq5ra8HBEcj8EN3pORAZFeVKq91Rvd40e-E9prHytYJLe2VI4d3CtmOFjlWho6oxPT1VRUMUKdt10OF8uuVi_nXkQ37MYKgRHkKKZQFKIu6w/s320/Fraunhofer.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5320220664591871586" border="0" /></a><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/ADMINI%7E1/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/moz-screenshot.jpg" alt="" /><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/ADMINI%7E1/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/moz-screenshot-1.jpg" alt="" /><span style="font-size:130%;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">History</span></span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjExMZyH5meHe1oDebFrkuroaX7U-OcxONkZjisYtJ802sSgLfEK_JIyDS1yO_kcxRukprUDVCfHRQi1NBsb-hXZCalloEoVOtKksL9I6_2tLJYT22MYdXr_jQKRaTNXXjimfNoTRlkdjc/s1600-h/fraunhofer.gif"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 60px; height: 60px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjExMZyH5meHe1oDebFrkuroaX7U-OcxONkZjisYtJ802sSgLfEK_JIyDS1yO_kcxRukprUDVCfHRQi1NBsb-hXZCalloEoVOtKksL9I6_2tLJYT22MYdXr_jQKRaTNXXjimfNoTRlkdjc/s320/fraunhofer.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5320223150291365986" border="0" /></a>
<br /><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:18;color:blue;" ></span></b>
<br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Joseph von Fraunhofer<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">1787-1826<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Fraunhofer achieved fame by developing recipes for the world’s finest optical glass. He also invented precise methods for measuring dispersion of glass, and discovered more than 500 different absorption lines in sunlight, most due to specific atomic or molecular species at the sun’s surface. These are still known as Fraunhofer lines. He had almost nothing to do with Fraunhofer diffraction that we’re discussing today. He did, however, invent the diffraction grating, which we will discuss next lecture. He was almost an exact contemporary of Augustin Fresnel. But it<span style=""> </span>is unlikely that they ever met.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
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<br /></span></span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} h2 {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; mso-outline-level:2; font-size:18.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; font-weight:bold;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <h2><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Fraunhofer and Fresnel approximations</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p style="text-align: justify;">Our calculus of phase threads is a pretty general principle, but in practice, we often make certain approximations, which are referred to by different names.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Whenever all the phase threads are <i>effectively parallel</i> to one another, then we refer to the resulting diffraction pattern as a <b><i>Fraunhofer</i></b>, or <b><i>Fourier domain</i></b>, or <b><i>far-field</i></b> diffraction pattern. We've already discussed one type of Fraunhofer pattern with our <a href="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/y900.html">Young's slits experiment</a>. The diagram looked like this: <o:p></o:p></p>
<br /><center><img src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Figs/f2800.gif" alt="corkscrew" /></center><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;">Well, the threads are not perfectly parallel here. But if we were to make the hemi-sphere very, very large, then all the threads would be parallel. The pattern we see would exist purely as a function of angle around the hemi-sphere. The co-ordinates of Frauhofer diffraction are therefore <i>angles</i> (or, more precisely, direction cosines). For all threads to be parallel, the object of interest (in the case above, the separation of the slits) must be small and the radius of the hemi-sphere must be large. How small and how large these dimensions are allowed to be depends on the wavelength, which determines the allowable error caused by the threads not being quite parallel.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">We have an easy way of making a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern in the electron microscope. We just press the 'diffraction' button. Remember, we are imaging the back-focal plane, which by definition is where all <i>parallel</i> beams emerging from the specimen come to a focus:<o:p></o:p></p> <center><img src="http://www.rodenburg.org/guide/Figs/f4800.gif" alt="back focal plane" /></center><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} h3 {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; mso-outline-level:3; font-size:13.5pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; font-weight:bold;} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;">On the contrary, <b><i>Fresnel diffraction</i></b> is the term used whenever we cannot make this 'parallel thread' approximation, in other words when we want to calculate a wave near a source of scattering.<o:p></o:p></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Validity limits of the Fraunhofer approximation:</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify;">We can work out a rough expression for when the Fraunhofer condition applies by considering when the ‘parallel thread’ approximation breaks down. Two parallel threads subtending from opposite edges of the scattering object, of width D, at some angle, say θ, have a path length difference between them of p, as shown in the following diagram:<o:p></o:p></p> <center><img src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Figs/f3900.gif" alt="parallel thread construction" /></center><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;">In this diagram, L = D cosθ (we will use this quantity below). <o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Now in the Fresnel condition, the threads meet up at a position relatively close to the scattering object, say at a distance R, like this:<o:p></o:p></p> <center><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;">
<br /><o:p></o:p></p> <img src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Figs/f4000.gif" alt="parallel thread construction" /></center> <p>If we suppose that the upper of the thread is at the same angle in the two diagrams, then what is the effect of the path length change of the lower thread being at a different angle in the two diagrams? Well, imagine holding onto the two threads, keeping the one upper stationary, we swing the lower thread upwards, like this:</p> <center><img src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Figs/f4100.gif" alt="parallel thread construction" /></center><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;">We see that the lower thread describes an arc of a circle, and the extra path length added to it as a result of no longer being parallel with the upper thread is δ. If we remember our elementary geometry, then for any two chords of a circle PQ and ST crossing each other at O, like this<o:p></o:p></p> <center><img src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Figs/f4200.gif" alt="parallel thread construction" /></center> <p><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></o:smarttagtype><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p style="text-align: justify;">then the lengths <st1:place st="on">PO</st1:place> times OQ equals SO times OT. In our case, we can redraw our two threads inscribed in a circle of radius R, like this:<o:p></o:p></p> <p></p> <center><img src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Figs/f4300.gif" alt="parallel thread construction" /></center> <p>where L is as defined earlier. We see that (assuming 2R - δ is roughly 2R) </p> <center><span style="font-size:100%;"><img style="width: 98px; height: 38px;" src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Equations/e700.gif" alt="equation" /></span></center> <p>where </p><center><img style="width: 110px; height: 35px;" src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Equations/e800.gif" alt="equation" /></center>.<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;">We generally wish to know how large R has to be in order for the Fraunhofer condition to apply. Clearly, this all depends upon how much of a phase error (caused by the non-parallel threads) we are prepared to tolerate. The phase error in radians is given by 2πδ/λ, where λ is the wavelength of our radiation. The total sum of adding up all the various complex value of our phase threads will be radically different if the contributions from the extreme edges of the scattering object are completely out of phase, that is if δ =λ/2. In practice, we probably want the error to be much less than λ/2, say fλ, where f is a small fraction. In this case, the Fraunhofer condition is satisfied if<o:p></o:p></p> <center><img style="width: 128px; height: 55px;" src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Equations/e900.gif" alt="equation" /></center>.<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;">In electron microscopy, the scattering angles are generally small (one to ten degrees), and so we can further approximate that L is about equal to D. So very roughly speaking, we reach the Fraunhofer condition when<o:p></o:p></p> <center><img style="width: 97px; height: 57px;" src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Equations/e1000.gif" alt="equation" /></center>.<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} h3 {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; mso-outline-level:3; font-size:13.5pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; font-weight:bold;} h4 {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; mso-outline-level:4; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; font-weight:bold;} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <h3 style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Other important differences between Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffraction:</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3> <h4 style="text-align: justify;">1) Movement:<o:p></o:p></h4> <p style="text-align: justify;">We can formulate the definition of Fraunhofer diffraction from a completely different perspective: <i>a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern does not move as the object (together with the illuminating radiation) is moved laterally</i>. <o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Unless we use a lens to form the diffraction pattern, then if R (the distance to the recording plane) is very large, the diffraction pattern will not appear to move relative to the total size of the pattern itself. So for example, if we have an object which is 100nm in size, the electron wavelength is 0.0025nm, and the phase error we are prepared to tolerate in our phase threads is f =1/10 (a phase error of 36 degrees), then R must be larger than 200 microns. In any experimental set up, R would typically be of the order centimetres, and so the Fraunhofer condition is very well satisfied for this object size. <o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">A typical electron diffraction pattern would extend up to about +/-10 degrees, and so when R = 200 microns, the total width of the pattern is about 40 microns. Now if we were to move the object laterally by its width (100nm), the diffraction pattern will also move by 100nm, but this is only 0.25% of its total width, and so we will not notice any substantial change in its position. When we use a lens to form the Fraunhofer pattern, even this tiny movement is eliminated (unless of course we moved the object so far that the diffracted beams miss the lens entirely! – in fact, for an aberrated electron lens, there will be a slight movement – but this is not important in the present context).<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">In summary, Fraunhofer patterns are fixed in position: they do not move as a function of shift of the scattering object. On the contrary, a Fresnel diffraction pattern (like the <a href="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/y1100.html">Fresnel fringes</a> we discussed earlier) is recorded much closer to the scattering object: these patterns move in a way that directly corresponds with any shift in the object. <o:p></o:p></p> <h4 style="text-align: justify;">2) Propagation<o:p></o:p></h4> <p style="text-align: justify;">The term ‘propagation’ in the context of waves means the act of allowing the wave to move forwards in space and time. Many wave patterns are stationary, in the sense that the pattern of intensity of the wave stays the same, even though the underlying wave continues to move constantly. Propagation is a mathematical way of finding out how the shape of the wave changes as it spreads from one region of space (usually in a plane, like the image plane or the diffraction pattern plane) to another. In electron microscopy we usually forget about time dependence, so propagation is just about finding out how the wave amplitude changes in space.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Another key difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction is that Fresnel diffraction patterns change as we propagate them further ‘downstream’ of the source of scattering, whereas the shape of the intensity of a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern stays constant. In fact, as far as any real physical detector is concerned, as we move further and further away from the object, the Fraunhofer pattern gets bigger and bigger, and its intensity at any one point gets smaller (although the overall integrated intensity remains constant): however, its overall shape does not change. This is because the Fraunhofer pattern is a function of angle only. Once R is large enough to satisfy the Fraunhofer condition, the relative phase of the threads at any one angle do not change as R increases further.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">On the contrary, a Fresnel diffraction pattern <i>does</i> change in shape as we move further away from the object (until, of course, we are so far away that the Fraunhofer condition is satisfied). It is easy to understand this in terms of phase threads. When we are close to an object of substantial size, the phase threads are extending towards us over a range of angles, like in the diagram we used earlier:<o:p></o:p></p> <center><img src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Figs/f3200.gif" alt="threads to point P" /></center><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} h4 {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; mso-outline-level:4; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; font-weight:bold;} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;">It is pretty clear that as we move the point P away from the object (hence we propagate the wave towards the right) then the <i>relative lengths </i>of the phase threads change with respect to one another. If the wavelength is short, even small changes in the relative length of the phase threads will radically affect the final result we obtain when we add up all the complex values corresponding to each thread.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">In summary, near a source of scattering, the shape of wave changes substantially as we move away from the object. Eventually its shape settles into a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern (when R is large, given the size of the object and λ). From that point onwards, the shape of the wave intensity just physically expands as we move away even further, but its shape stays the same.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">(Aside: If we form a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern using the back focal plane of a lens, then it is not true that if we move away from this plane – i.e. propagate the wave – that the pattern we observe remains the same. This is because of the way we are using the lens to bring what were parallel beams (threads) to a focus where they interfere. This focus occurs only at one very distinct plane, because the beams incident upon it are not parallel to one another, but are converging over a range of angles.)<o:p></o:p></p> <h4 style="text-align: justify;">3) The surface of calculation:<o:p></o:p></h4> <p style="text-align: justify;">In the examples we’ve shown here, we have chosen to calculate Fresnel diffraction patterns on flat surfaces and Fraunhofer diffraction patterns on spherical surfaces. I think this is the logical way of approaching the subject, although it is not the way most textbooks derive the mathematics. The usual diagram is shown as follows:<o:p></o:p></p> <center><img src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Figs/f4400.gif" alt="conventional construction" /></center><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;">A source is position a distance S away from a flat surface, where some sort of aperture or object is positioned. A detector plane, also a flat surface, is positioned a distance R away on the other side of the aperture or object plane.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">In our discussion above, we always assumed that the object was illuminated by a plane wave, which is equivalent to saying that S, the distance from the source to the object, is very large (in fact, the definition of ‘very large’ is the same as for R being large for the Fraunhofer condition to apply). As we move our detector plane from R=0 to R = large distance, then the pattern we record will start off as simply the intensity of the wave at the exit surface of the object function, it will then develop into a Fresnel pattern (complete with all the Fresnel fringes we discussed earlier, if there are sharp edges in the object), and then, as R is large enough to satisfy the Faunhofer condition, it will turn into a Fraunhofer pattern, from then on just getting larger and larger.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">The trouble with this formulation is when we want to think about the <i>phase</i> of the underlying Fraunhofer diffraction pattern. Over a flat surface, the phase of the wave changes rapidly as we move away from the centre of the pattern, irrespective of whether we are in the Fraunhofer condition or not, as shown in the following diagram:<o:p></o:p></p> <center><img src="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/Figs/f4500.gif" alt="Ewald sphere and flat surface" /></center>
<br /><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} a:link, span.MsoHyperlink {color:blue; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} a:visited, span.MsoHyperlinkFollowed {color:purple; text-decoration:underline; text-underline:single;} p {mso-margin-top-alt:auto; margin-right:0cm; mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto; margin-left:0cm; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;">Here, the red line is a section through a flat detector plane, as in the conventional formulation. The green line is a section through a spherical surface, centred on the centre of the object function. We used the right of half green line in our discussion of <a href="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/y900.html">Young’s slits</a>.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">The problem with the red line is that the underlying phase of the diffraction pattern over its length changes very rapidly as a function of θ, because of the extra path difference shown in blue. In fact, in the Fraunhofer condition, this extra path length difference (and hence phase change) has no bearing on the recorded intensity (except for a decay factor due to 1/R<sup>2</sup>), because all the contributing phase threads have the same path length (phase) added to them. The complex value of the wavefunction may vary very rapidly along the blue line, but its modulus (and hence <a href="http://www.rodenburg.org/theory/y200.html">intensity</a>) remains constant.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Now, it is often said that the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is the Fourier Transform of the exit wave coming out of the object function. In fact, the complex value of the wave over a flat surface (i.e. along the red line) is <i>not</i> the Fourier Transform of object exit wave. However, over the green line (a hemispherical surface) the complex value of the wave <i>is</i> mathematically equivalent to the Fourier Transform, at least for small values of θ.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">In my experience, this little detail leads to all sorts of confusion.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">First, it is sometimes said that validity of the Fraunhofer condition for the phase of the scattered wave is much more severe than for its intensity. That’s true if we insist upon talking about flat detectors (or flat planes on the entrance pupil of lenses that re-interfere the diffraction pattern) because of this extra path length. But in general it is much more natural to define the Fraunhofer pattern over a sphere, in which case this issue just doesn’t arise.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Secondly, because most the textbooks start off with a flat detector surface (which is, after all, not unreasonable), this extra ‘flat surface’ phase change is incorporated into the diffraction integral. Only by forming the intensity (which is often asserted quite early in the conventional derivation) is this extra phase obliterated (the wave is multiplied by its complex conjugate). However, this means that the direct connection between the mathematical device of the Fourier Transform and Fraunhofer diffraction plane is lost. Most texts undertake a change of coordinates (from the flat surface to angles of scatter) in order to bring out the equivalence. If we stick to the spherical surface (the green line) from the start, we don’t suffer any of these messy complications.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Another good reason for using the spherical surface is that (given appropriate scaling) it is equivalent to the Ewald sphere, an indispensable tool in all diffraction theory (that is, Fraunhofer diffraction theory) of the scattering of waves from three-dimensional objects. The green curve is then seen truly as a subset of a three- dimensional Fourier Transform of the object function, even at large values of θ (which in the diffraction literature is called 2θ<sub>B</sub>, where θ<sub>B</sub> is called the Bragg angle). This is even true for waves which have been scattered through an angle greater than 90 degrees.<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><u1:p></u1:p><o:p> </o:p></p>
<br />akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-70435185033007458822009-04-01T14:22:00.000-07:002009-04-01T15:49:05.864-07:00Wheatstone Bridge(Jembatan Wheatstone)<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjI_8TzlKTxqX_1Chsg1EUhrC8zCTnS3ssbNiHTbyCARYqNVp8KMkn-T0sKB-66jOTpTu_6NiPeRkOKMuOiifu4zmyviMXvYO3b8tdMxq-dDLsZj3afTtfYbAQWL42FjC5SiRNW7FM5NXw/s1600-h/Wheatstone.gif"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 261px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjI_8TzlKTxqX_1Chsg1EUhrC8zCTnS3ssbNiHTbyCARYqNVp8KMkn-T0sKB-66jOTpTu_6NiPeRkOKMuOiifu4zmyviMXvYO3b8tdMxq-dDLsZj3afTtfYbAQWL42FjC5SiRNW7FM5NXw/s320/Wheatstone.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5319851070390809730" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwi3OsjJL5eHOS9W5y3FEf4PoMj9UwUihODZSoSqfkLtcnkEofJMqw8KUCBMVpB7hwqlOikVfJlZ2u6NjnSalBUs_R6sYFlP2AR7BldmKeClbtHur5e2psbmA_NvFcwm8wWQR2TJnctoY/s1600-h/441px-Wheatstone_Bridge.svg.png"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 300px; height: 296px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwi3OsjJL5eHOS9W5y3FEf4PoMj9UwUihODZSoSqfkLtcnkEofJMqw8KUCBMVpB7hwqlOikVfJlZ2u6NjnSalBUs_R6sYFlP2AR7BldmKeClbtHur5e2psbmA_NvFcwm8wWQR2TJnctoY/s320/441px-Wheatstone_Bridge.svg.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5319850174285795090" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;">The Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit for the precise comparison of resistances. Sir Charles Wheatstone is most famous for this device but never claimed to have invented it -however, he did more than anyone else to invent uses for it, when he 'found' the description of the device in 1843. The first description of the bridge was by Samuel Hunter Christie (1784-1865) in 1833.<br /><br />The Wheatstone bridge is an electrical bridge circuit used to measure resistance. It consists of a common source of electrical current (such as a battery) and a galvanometer that connects two parallel branches, containing four resistors, three of which are known. One parallel branch contains one known resistance and an unknown (R4 in the above example); the other parallel branch contains resistors of known resistances. In order to determine the resistance of the unknown resistor, the resistances of the other three are adjusted and balanced until the current passing through the galvanometer decreases to zero.<br /><br /><br />The Wheatstone bridge is well suited also for the measurement of small changes of a resistance and, therefore, is also suitable to measure the resistance change in a strain gauge. It is commonly known that the strain gauge transforms strain applied to it into a proportional change of resistance. It is widely used across industry even today.</div>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-55076706946291139832009-03-31T13:41:00.000-07:002009-04-21T13:39:04.174-07:00Electron Microscopes<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgx2uGEc-_IBzBDwtk4hblXlI0De3t136dX5WIV9pEh9m4t955xc9q37lyoGsxrkoE6bj6ymZVWuh9W47GCwm2lJVpCfarcf5okQP_Dcf6YRtwbdyafmXVHUE834lDdj9k-cFV7R0aCaf8/s1600-h/1.gif"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 302px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgx2uGEc-_IBzBDwtk4hblXlI0De3t136dX5WIV9pEh9m4t955xc9q37lyoGsxrkoE6bj6ymZVWuh9W47GCwm2lJVpCfarcf5okQP_Dcf6YRtwbdyafmXVHUE834lDdj9k-cFV7R0aCaf8/s320/1.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5319460904206055058" border="0" /></a><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhs_BVJt9-EYGShnarBmAD_3NIaV_DTURnF2ELqZTtSqPRnZP1hBVD3rqfUXzIuAzUMl7EzTZ403NU1RNJw8y8tfxyFAK3MZBNByeDkugRNkD38UZDPrjI7Ji6zEcUUn5Zg4qayMiExuS4/s1600-h/tem.gif"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 267px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhs_BVJt9-EYGShnarBmAD_3NIaV_DTURnF2ELqZTtSqPRnZP1hBVD3rqfUXzIuAzUMl7EzTZ403NU1RNJw8y8tfxyFAK3MZBNByeDkugRNkD38UZDPrjI7Ji6zEcUUn5Zg4qayMiExuS4/s320/tem.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5319459592458234642" border="0" /></a>
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<br /></span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The first electron microscope was built only a few years after the discovery that high-speed electrons had wavelength many times smaller than the wavelength of light. Because of the smaller wavelengths, electron microscope are capable of much higher resolution than optical microscopes. The Beam of electrons can be focused by suitably shaped electric of magnetic fields. For example, the magnetic field of a solenoid<span style=""> </span>acts like a converging lend for electrons. In transmission electron microscope (TEM), an energetic beam of electrons focused by a magnetic condenser lens illuminates the specimen being examined and passes trough to a magnetic objective lens, which forms an intermediate image. A magnetic projector lens then magnifies a portion of the intermediate image to form the final image on a fluorescent screen, a photographic plate, or a semiconductor detector connected to a computer, just as in the case of an optical microscope, the overall magnification is the product of the magnifications of the objective and the projector lenses. With the proper choice of magnetic kens currents, the overall magnification can be as high as 200,000X. The critical limitation is the resolution. Modern instruments are capable of resolving objects smaller than 0,5 nm.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Scanning electron microscopes (SEM), which came into wide usage in the 1970s and 1980s, operate on a different principle from the TEM. In the SEM, a finely focused electron beam screen across the surface of the specimen being examined. As the beam scans across the specimen, the incident electron (primaries)<span style=""> </span>knock out other electrons<span style=""> </span>(secondaries) that come from the area on the specimen were the primary beam is focused. The secondary electrons are collected at a positive electrode.<span style=""> </span>The intensity of the secondary current changes as the primary beam sweeps across the specimen, since more secondaries are generated when the beam strikes a sharply curved edge or sloping surface than when it strikes a flat surface. The intensity information is used to generate a televisionlike image on a cathode ray thbe, which gives an impression of three-dimensional surface relief. The size of the beam (typically less than 10 nm )<span style=""> </span>limits the resolution of the instrument. In both types of electron microscopes, the extremely small de Broglie wavelengths of high-speed electrons permit imaging with high resolution.</p>
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<br />akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-65577339799303810282009-03-29T11:55:00.000-07:002009-03-29T13:19:26.113-07:00Nuclear Fission<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6qHxtMZNYRlnuB3-L92IPrRQX_b0KVxpV6N_FElwFM7VSPaeT__C9SH_vxn73qufmaH8brJfLDm1-2V64OZBN5R7FUkNxGO51NcZbF8bLvTAewxZDKXPn0DoGG5_38tIpBiah_9SmuDg/s1600-h/H02L.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 228px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6qHxtMZNYRlnuB3-L92IPrRQX_b0KVxpV6N_FElwFM7VSPaeT__C9SH_vxn73qufmaH8brJfLDm1-2V64OZBN5R7FUkNxGO51NcZbF8bLvTAewxZDKXPn0DoGG5_38tIpBiah_9SmuDg/s320/H02L.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5318706593723959202" border="0" /></a><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheu7UroomelC3rHTThja8uDYZ5DpbT2ixwvLhSwV2_XT9XiCOybD_D2Z_p_xgmEFG9dNElNY2OvuEfV7TgHo9gdQ0cet-fPHRWcu58yB2iV1Huy29PPZLZ4sl1CLwB27GpoJB5cAYRL-8/s1600-h/nucleur+fission.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 275px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheu7UroomelC3rHTThja8uDYZ5DpbT2ixwvLhSwV2_XT9XiCOybD_D2Z_p_xgmEFG9dNElNY2OvuEfV7TgHo9gdQ0cet-fPHRWcu58yB2iV1Huy29PPZLZ4sl1CLwB27GpoJB5cAYRL-8/s320/nucleur+fission.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5318687715647254146" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="font-size:100%;">In 1939, Otto Hahn and Fritz strazzman published their work on a special kind of Nuclear reaction of both teoretical and practical interest.It was already known that many product of artificially induced transmutation were themselves radioactive.Hahn and Strassman, along with Lise meitner, had bonbarded uranium wiyh neutron. Their exprriments were similar to other experiments being done at that time in an effort to create elements of atomic number greater than 92(uranium).<br />The products of the reactuon were radioactive, but there was great diffculty in identifying the actual nuclei. Finally, a series of extremely careful chemical analyses by Hahn shoed that the reaction products contain both Ba(139,56)</span> and La(140,57), two materials much lighter than uranium.<br />===================================================================<br />Fisson procces have the possibility of being of some particel use because thhey have possitive Q value; that is, the kinetic energy of the product is greter than the kinetic energyof the initial reactan s. The possitive Q value occurs because the heavier elements have a smaller binding energy per nucleon than do the medium-mass elements. The heavy elements can then break up into two components that are more tightly bound and therefore have less total mass energy. On the average, about 200 MeV of energy are released per fission. Compare yhis value wiyh the average energy in chemical reactions,wich is less than 1 eV per molecule.<br />The large energy produced per fiddion would be of no practical use if it were not for the fact that each fiddion realeses an average of 2.5 neutrons. If we place the fissioning nuclei in the proper configuration, theseneutrons can cause other fission. The neutron from those fissions can cause still other fissions,each fisssion releasing more neutrons and more energy. Such a procces is called a chain reaction.If the procces occurs in an uncontrolled fashion, the result is an explosion. If the procces is carried out in a manner that limits the number of neutrons causing successive fission events, then the heat due to the kinetic energy can be extracted and made to he useful work, as in nuclear-fueled power plants. In either case, the products of the fisson proccess are extremely radioactive. The products are mostly long-lived gamma-ray emitters, which offer considerable health hazard.akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-45847836420750073062009-03-26T14:21:00.000-07:002009-03-27T12:07:01.720-07:00Teori relativitas Khusus<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsKpHXS2f6IwbPiUmNLBfas-75eIhRguhMgkzQenyQxQciWmPklKekSnFyL3hQ8A2qACuepdZjBHXeEpwRQwLEWi9lZQ8ObjH-_uIj_0Tch6MhrTfnj3rAI4vddpiLoJUGAp3DnpAns9M/s1600-h/special-relativity.GIF"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 306px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsKpHXS2f6IwbPiUmNLBfas-75eIhRguhMgkzQenyQxQciWmPklKekSnFyL3hQ8A2qACuepdZjBHXeEpwRQwLEWi9lZQ8ObjH-_uIj_0Tch6MhrTfnj3rAI4vddpiLoJUGAp3DnpAns9M/s320/special-relativity.GIF" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5317937046290264786" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><br />Albert einstein mengemukakan 2 Postulat Relativitas khusus:<br />1. Prinsip Relativitas Khusus:Hukum fisika dapat dinyatakan dalam persaman yang berbentuk sama dalam semua kerangka inersial,yaitu keramgka-kerangka yang bergerak dengan kegepatan sama satu sama lain.<br />2. Kelajuan cahaya dalam ruang hampa sama besar untuk semua pengamat dan tidak bergantung pada gerak pengamat.<br /><br /><br />Dilatasi Waktu(Time Dilation)<br />----------------------------------------------------<br />Akibat penting postulat Einstein adalah Time Dilation(Dilatasi Waktu) ialah selang waktu antara dua kejadian yang terjadi pada tempat yang sama dalam suatu kerangka acuan selalu lebih singkatdaripada selang waktu antara kejadian yang sama yang diukur dalam kerangka acuan yang lain yang kejadianya terjadi pada tempat yang berbeda.<br /><br />Penyusutan Panjang(Length Contraction)<br />-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br />Suatu fenomen yang berhubungan dengan pemekaran waktu ialah penyusutan panjang.Panjang benda yang diukur dalam kerangka acuan dimana bendanya berada dalam keadaan diam disebut panjang patut(Lp).Dalam kerangka acuan yang bendanya bergerak'panjang yang diukur akan lebih pendek daripada panjang patutnya.akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3980515562337259615.post-27261076888464769192009-03-23T11:21:00.000-07:002009-03-25T14:53:23.026-07:00Efek Fotolistrik<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7xuq7f2gtziMVfAgaxEr6UiEGwtH-HnJOkIkfTEEgsXwL6kG945V8qeNDRskWu6-ZxRzCFTBqOHdkmcNaATdPkcHXOadj01Fx7OQqKN92MA0q-4J4FUt6JQ7ZtySt1Q55hahRg-skP3o/s1600-h/Fotoelektrisk_effekt3.png"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 250px; height: 181px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7xuq7f2gtziMVfAgaxEr6UiEGwtH-HnJOkIkfTEEgsXwL6kG945V8qeNDRskWu6-ZxRzCFTBqOHdkmcNaATdPkcHXOadj01Fx7OQqKN92MA0q-4J4FUt6JQ7ZtySt1Q55hahRg-skP3o/s320/Fotoelektrisk_effekt3.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5316457665898323490" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">Efek fotolistrik adalah pengeluaran </span><span style="font-size:85%;">elektron</span><span style="font-size:85%;"> dari suatu permukaan (biasanya logam) ketika dikenai, dan menyerap, </span><span style="font-size:85%;">radiasi elektromagnetik</span><span style="font-size:85%;">(seperti </span><span style="font-size:85%;">cahaya</span><span style="font-size:85%;"> tampak dan radiasi ultraungu) yang berada di atas frekuensi ambang tergantung pada jenis permukaan. Istilah lama untuk efek fotolistrik adalah efek Hertz (yang saat ini tidak digunakan lagi).Tidak ada elektron yang dilepaskan oleh radiasi di bawah frekuensi ambang, karena elektron tidak mendapatkan energi yang cukup untuk mengatasi ikatan atom. Elektron yang dipancarkan biasanya disebut fotoelektron dalam banyak buku pelajaran.<br />Efek fotolistrik banyak membantu </span><span style="font-size:85%;">penduaan gelombang-partikel</span><span style="font-size:85%;">, dimana sistem fisika (seperti </span><span style="font-size:85%;">foton</span><span style="font-size:85%;"> dalam kasus ini) dapat menunjukkan kedua sifat dan kelakuan seperti-gelombang dan seperti-partikel, sebuah konsep yang banyak digunakan oleh pencipta </span><span style="font-size:85%;">mekanika kuantum</span><span style="font-size:85%;">. Efek fotolistrik dijelaskan secara matematis oleh </span><span style="font-size:85%;">Albert Einstein</span><span style="font-size:85%;"> yang memperluas kuanta yang dikembangkan oleh </span><span style="font-size:85%;">Max Planck</span><span style="font-size:85%;">.Pada tahun 1899, Joseph John Thomson meneliti cahaya ultraungu dalam tabung sinar katoda. Dipengaruhi oleh kerja James Clerk Maxwell, Thomson menyimpulkan bahwa sinar katoda terdiri atas partikel-partikel bermuatan negatif, yang dia sebut corpuscles (belakangan disebut "</span><span style="font-size:85%;">elektron</span><span style="font-size:85%;">"). Dalam penelitian tersebut, Thomson menempatkan pelat logam (yaitu, katoda) dalam tabung hampa, dan menyinarinya dengan radiasi frekuensi tinggi.</span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);font-size:85%;" >Sumber Bacaan : Wikipedia Indonesia.</span>akhmad nurul mukminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03968636182763135892noreply@blogger.com0